Unit 2

UNIT 2
AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION:
AN INTERVENTION FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT


A. Historical Antecedents of Agricultural Extension
a.1 Extension in Europe and in the USA
a.2 Extension in the Philippine Setting

B. Extension Defined
b.1 Philosophy
b.2 Goals and Objectives
b.3 Types of Extension


I. The term "extension"
The use of the word "extension" derives from an educational development in England during the second half of the nineteenth century. Around 1850, discussions began in the two ancient universities of Oxford and Cambridge about how they could serve the educational needs, near to their homes, of the rapidly growing populations in the industrial, urban area. It was not until 1867 that a first practical attempt was made in what was designated "university extension," but the activity developed quickly to become a well-established movement before the end of the century. Initially, most of the lectures given were on literary and social topics. The growth and success of this work in Britain influenced the initiation of similar activity elsewhere, especially in the United States. During the first two decades of this century, the extramural work of the land-grant colleges, concerned with serving the needs of farm families, was to expand dramatically and become formally organized; but the use of the term "extension" continued and has persisted as the designation for the work.
The overt use of the notion of "extending" relevant and useful information to the adult population at large, however, predates the university extension movement. Earlier in the nineteenth century, a British politician, Lord Henry Brougham, an influential advocate of formal education for the poor and of mass adult education, founded the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge in 1826. Its objective was "imparting useful information to all classes of the community, particularly to such as are unable to avail themselves of experienced teachers, or may prefer learning by themselves." The society sought to do this largely through producing low-priced publications and establishing local committees throughout the country "for extending the object of the Society" (Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge 1827). During its twenty years' existence, agricultural topics were well covered in the society's publications. Similar, albeit short-lived, societies were also established before 1840 in several other European countries, India, China, Malaysia, and the United States (in Virginia) (Grobel, 1933; Smith, 1972).
II. The distant origins
The dissemination of relevant information and advice to farmers, however, has a long history prior to the emergence of modem forms of agricultural extension in the nineteenth century.
The first known example was in Mesopotamia (roughly, present-day Iraq) around 1800 B.C. Archaeologists have unearthed clay tablets of the time on which were inscribed advice on watering crops and getting rid of rats - important for mitigating any potential loss of taxation revenue from farmers (Ahmed, 1982, as quoted in Bne Saad, 1990). Some hieroglyphs on Egyptian columns also gave advice on avoiding crop damage and loss of life from the Nile's floods. An important advance was the beginning of agricultural writings. Though few have survived, the earliest were written during the ancient Greek and Phoenician civilizations, but some of them were adapted by Roman writers. From the second century B.C. to the fourth century A.D., several important Latin texts were written, frequently drawing on practical farming experience, which aimed to help Roman landowners to maintain and improve then-estates and their revenues (White, 1970, 1977).
At around the same period in imperial China, early forms of advancing and disseminating agricultural information also began. That landowners and their tenants should improve their production was a matter of concern to the state since, from the sixth century B.C. onwards, it relied heavily on land taxes for its revenues. Necessary conditions for agricultural extension to evolve
III. Towards the Modern Era
The earliest known renaissance agricultural text was written in Latin by Pietro de Crescenzi in 1304 and was translated into Italian and French. This became the first book on agriculture to be printed in the mid-fifteenth century. Others soon followed, often based on the old Latin texts or on the collected wisdom of farmers and their families. A well-known example, a compendium of helpful advice in simple verse and a bestseller in Tudor England, was Thomas Tusser's A hundredth goode pointes of husbandrie, published in 1557 and expanded in 1573 to five hundred good points with as many on "goode housewiferie" (Tusser, 1580). Less popular, but of greater significance, were Francis Bacon's writings early in the next century based on his observations and scientific experiments on his estate north of London - the beginnings of the application of science and scientific method to agriculture (Russell, 1966).
By the mid-eighteenth century, throughout much of Europe, progressive landowners (frequently aristocrats) and their agents and a few similarly minded farmers were being known as "improvers." These, along with some "men of science," were the main proponents of agricultural clubs or societies. At their regular meetings and demonstrations, locally and regionally, landowners and leading farmers exchanged ideas and information and discussed farming improvements.
By the 1820s, most of the elements for creating modem forms of agricultural extension were in being, although each was to develop considerably during the nineteenth century. A crucial missing element, however, was an effective means by which the "generality" of farmers could be directly given information, advice, and encouragement. This required itinerant agriculturists who could meet farmers in their home localities, give instructional talks and demonstrations, advocate superior or new practices, and have discussions with the farmers.
In Europe, agricultural science was evolving rapidly by the 1840s, with notable strides being made in Germany by Justus von Liebig at Giessen, and with the establishment of agricultural experiments at Rothamsted in England in 1843 by John Bennet Lawes and Henry Gilbert. Agricultural societies and their shows were flourishing. Numerous publications and periodicals were aimed at farmers. Agricultural schools, if not commonplace, had been established in most European countries. Thus a small minority of younger landowners and farmers had received a formal education in their calling, while purposely trained agriculturists were available to be engaged as estate agents or teachers. Many of the more progressive landowners employed agents to travel around their estates to urge improved methods on their tenants. The main element necessary to create modern agricultural extension services was for legitimate authorities to establish the necessary organizations - and the germ of this had already been present in France, Germany, and the United States.
IV. The birth of modern agricultural extension services
The first agricultural extension service of a modem kind came into existence as the result of a crisis and the initiative of the occupant of a high office of authority. The crisis was the outbreak of potato blight in Europe in 1845. In Ireland its effects were particularly severe because the predominantly peasant population relied on potatoes in their diet, and "the potato famine" persisted until 1851. The new British viceroy appointed to Ireland in 1847, the Earl of Clarendon, soon after his arrival in Dublin wrote a letter (Jones, 1982) to the president of the Royal Agricultural Improvement Society of Ireland (founded in 1841), which acted as the central society for numerous local agricultural societies. This letter, no less than an official directive, urged the society to appoint itinerant lecturers to travel around the most distressed districts to inform and show small farmers, in simple terms, how to improve their cultivation and how to grow nutritious root crops other than potatoes.
The potato famine also led to employing itinerant farm advisers. When the system was adopted in the kingdom of Bavaria in 1896, it was as an integral part of the state civil service; the extension workers were grandly titled Royal Agricultural Teachers.
By the close of the nineteenth century, agricultural extension systems modelled to a considerable extent on the German Wanderlehrer had spread: to Denmark from 1870 onwards; to the Netherlands, where a few extension workers (wandelleraren) had been appointed by agricultural societies in the late 1840s and 1850s, but had then disappeared before being revived as a government system in the 1890s; to Italy, where the first itinerant agricultural teacher (cattedra ambulante di agricoltura) was appointed in 1886 at Rovigo
A comparable development of farmers' institutes began in Ontario, Canada, in 1885. These were financially supported by the provincial legislature and spread rapidly with lecturers mainly from the Ontario Agricultural College at Guelph (founded in 1874). A somewhat similar system began in Prince Edward Island. Thus, by the end of the last century, a system of agricultural extension work had become well established in a large part of North America. In the United States, the colleges and their leading professors, including several notable proponents of more practical extension work, progressively took over the initiation and organization of the activity. This culminated in 1914 with the passage of the Smith-Lever Act, establishing the Cooperative Extension Service - a tripartite cooperation of federal, state, and local county governments, with the state college as the extension agency - "in order to aid in diffusing among the people of the United States useful and practical information on subjects relating to agriculture and home economics, and to encourage the application of the same."
In the Southern Hemisphere, extension work also became established along the wide coastal belts of southern and eastern Australia. Several agricultural ("show") societies were formed in the second half of the nineteenth century, although their effect was slight, but as the state administrations became more organized, departments of agriculture were established in the 1870s and 1880s with the aim of developing the potential of their territories. They recognized the importance of agricultural education, influenced by British, Irish, and some American examples whose activities were widely reported in the Australian press.
Associated with this development was the official appointment in these states of the first itinerant agricultural instructors in the late 1880s. Agricultural extension work had also started before 1900 in Japan. Following the Meiji Restoration in 1868, new administrative structures and various modernizing policies were adopted. Two agricultural colleges were established in the mid-1870s, staffed by Western (mainly European) teachers.
The development and organization of agricultural extension work was not entirely confined to temperate countries. In a variety of ways, it had also begun in tropical areas, especially in colonial territories.
V. Modern agricultural extension
In the early years of this century, extension services were in their formative stage; they were relatively small in scale and limited in the scope of their work and contact with farmers, and their organization was often somewhat haphazard even though based on legislation. They were organized predominantly either by central or local governments, or by agricultural colleges, usually in close association with experiment stations, or by farmers' organizations (agricultural societies, cooperatives, farmers' unions, or chambers of agriculture), or combinations of these parent bodies. As the century has progressed, the organizations have matured. Changes have often occurred to their parent affiliations, government funding has become relatively more important, their objectives have become broader, especially in "the North," and the extension workers have become better trained and more professional.
As agricultural extension organizations have grown and changed, they have invariably become more bureaucratic with distinct hierarchical structures. The work of dispersed extension workers had to be administered and controlled so that one or more levels of intermediary structure (for example, district, region) have been created between the field-level agents and their headquarters.
During the past quarter century, the work of extension services has often become more diversified. In the less developed countries, the main focus remains on agricultural (mainly food) production, but there has been a growing recognition of the need to reach, influence, and benefit the multitudes of small, resource-poor farmers. Strong efforts have been made in this direction, notably through the training and visit system. Among the commercial farmers of the North, a major problem has become surplus production, with farmers facing economic and policy pressures to restrict it. Associated with intensive production methods, many issues and problems regarding environmental deterioration and livestock welfare have also arisen. Thus these have become important aspects of extension work, particularly socioeconomic guidance which focusses both on means by which farmers might maintain their income levels from their resources (for example, introduction of novel crops or livestock and involvement in various rural enterprises) and on the ways of assuring the longer term welfare of farmers and their families. Agricultural extension services are thus adding a strong social dimension to their activities.
Agricultural extension has now become recognised as an essential mechanism for delivering information and advice as an "input" into modem farming. The pace of change in the organization, functions, strategies, and approaches of agricultural extension is clearly accelerating.
VI. The future
The need for agricultural and rural information and advisory services is likely to intensify in the foreseeable future. In much of the world, agriculture faces the challenge of keeping pace with rapidly increasing population with few reserves of potentially cultivable land. Farmers will have to become more efficient and specialized.
From government perspectives, whatever priority is given to production, extension will remain a key policy tool for promoting ecologically and socially sustainable farming practices.
Some of the most promising recent developments in extension methodology have occurred where the key agenda is environmental or is concerned with equity, for example in the need for the joint management of forests by professionals and local forest users and in integrated pest management. A consistent theme running through the innovative approaches being used, such as participatory rural appraisal (Chambers, 1993), is a fundamental change in what are the respective roles of extension agent and clients. The agent is no longer seen as the expert who has all the useful information and technical solutions; the clients' own knowledge and ingenuity, individually and collectively, are recognized as a major resource; solutions to local problems are to be developed in partnership between agent and clients. Since the scale at which extension support is required is thus often larger than the individual farm, extension workers need new skills of negotiation, conflict resolution, and the nurturing of emerging community organizations (Garforth, 1993; Smith, 1994).
The future is also likely to witness a reversal of recent trends towards bureaucratization within hierarchical extension services and a reduction in their levels of public funding. Moreover, a rapid increase can be expected in the use of information technology in support of extension. The forces for change in these areas (see Rivera & Gustafson, 1991) will come from four main directions.
Economic and Policy Climate
With the collapse during the past decade of socialist forms of economic organization, the (dominant) role of the public sector in national economies has become questionable, with a strengthening trend to reduce levels of public spending. Thus government extension services and those which are largely publicly financed are, and will continue to be, under pressure to become more efficient, to reduce their expenditure and staff, and to pass on (some of) the costs of provision to their clients who directly benefit financially. This is particularly the case in countries where the farm population forms a small minority and agricultural production is in surplus. The case is weaker, but not absent, in less developed countries where farming households form a high proportion of the total population and where increasing food production is still important. Thus charging clients for services is likely to become more widespread, while governments will find it attractive to contract out the operation of services to the private or the voluntary sector.
Social Context in Rural Areas
In the future, rural populations will undoubtedly be progressively better educated, while their exposure to the mass media will continue to reduce their isolation and detachment from information, ideas, and an awareness of their situation within a national and international context. However, this exposure will not reduce the need for extension. Rather, given the changing demands on agricultural producers from population growth, increasing urbanization, legislative changes, and market requirements, the more knowledgeable farming population will require different kinds of extension services. Social and economic trends within rural areas will therefore necessitate more highly trained, specialized, and technically competent workers, who also know where to obtain relevant information and problem solutions and various provision and organizational forms (Moris, 1991; Hayward, 1990) to replace monolithic government extension agencies. These agencies will need to recognize and serve different types of clients defined not in terms of "adopter categories" but of access to markets, degree of commercialization, and relative dependence on agriculture for family income and welfare.
Systems Knowledge
A recognition of the locale-specific nature of farming systems and the agricultural information systems which support them is an important source of the pressure towards the debureaucratization and devolution of extension services. This recognition also implies that extension workers and farmers be jointly involved in the verification and adaptation of new technology, and thus that the extension workers respect farmers as experimenters, developers, and adapters of technology and devote more energy on communication within their local areas. The devolution of extension services to become local organizations is a reasonable corollary of this. Developments in mass media technology, already apparent over a decade ago (Garforth, 1986), will continue to support this localization of extension effort.
Information Technology
The continuing rapid development of telecommunications and computer-based information technology (IT) is probably the biggest factor for change in extension, one which will facilitate and reinforce other changes. There are many possibilities for the potential applications of the technology in agricultural extension (FAO, 1993; Zijp, 1994). IT will bring new information services to rural areas over which farmers, as users, will have much greater control than over current information channels. Even if every farmer does not have a computer terminal, these could become readily available at local information resource centres, with computers carrying expert systems to help farmers to make decisions. However, it will not make extension workers redundant. Rather, they will be able to concentrate on tasks and services where human interaction is essential - in helping farmers individually and in small groups to diagnose problems, to interpret data, and to apply their meaning (Leeuwis, 1993).
The future will call for more able, more independent, more client-oriented extension workers. The emphasis will be on the quality of interaction between agent and client rather than on the movement of "messages" through a hierarchical system.
Flexibility and adaptability will be seen as virtues rather than aberrations. Paradoxically, these trends will bring us full circle to the early manifestations of modem extension in Europe. The itinerant agricultural teachers, unencumbered by large bureaucracies and tall hierarchies, will find their modem counterparts in the computer-carrying extension workers who are at ease helping farmers to identify the information they need in order to realize the potential of their farming operations. Looking back, we can regard the period from 1970 to 1995 as a necessary but expensive stage in the evolution of extension systems, after which extension agents were able to settle down to their main task - bringing together the expertise of farmers and the best available scientific knowledge to develop farms and local agricultural economies.
EXTENSION HISTORY

Beginnings: started in Europe as early as the 16th century
1826 - British politician founded the society for the diffusion of useful knowledge
1840s - use of the term ‘university extension’ of the university was first
recorded in Britain
1867-68 -first practical steps were taken when James Stuart, Fellow of trinity College, Cambridge, gave lectures to women’s associations and working men’s club in the North of England. Stuart is often considered the ‘Father of University Extension’
1871 -Stuart approached authorities in University of Cambridge and appealed to them to organize centers for extension lectures under the university’s supervision
1873 -“Extension Education” was first introduced as an organized
university function
- Cambridge formally adopted the system
1876 - London University followed the system
1880 - the work was referred to as the ‘extension movement’ (i.e., the University extended its use beyond the campus

Beginning of - extension education was used in the USA to indicate that the
20th target group for university teaching should not be
century restricted to students on campus but extended to people living anywhere in the state. For many years this was only an activity of the College of agriculture. Towards the end of the 19th century, Agricultural Extension became widespread in USA

distant origins - Agricultural extension was already made even prior to the emergence of modern agricultural extension (e.g. in Mesopotamia, the present-day Iraq, archaeologist have unearthed clay tablets on which were inscribed advice on watering crops and getting rid of rats

modern - came into the existence as a result of a crisis and the initiative
agricultural of the occupant of the high office of authority-the outbreak of the
extension potato blight in Europe in 1845; severely affected was Ireland; potato famine persisted until 1851


Extension of the Philippines

Spanish Era
1565 - setting of Granja Modelos (model farms); beginnings of
extension work in the Philippines
- First Spanish missionaries initiated education the farmers who grew rice, sugarcane & tobacco in large encomiendas
- Granja served as experimental stations of the Spanish government and demonstration centers for farmers

American Era
1901 (Oct 8) - Beginning of extension work during the American
regime; no definite plan until 30 April 1902 with the
establishment of the Bureau of Agriculture
1910 (July) - creation of the Demonstration and Extension Division
(DED)
under the Bureau making it the first formally organized
government department
1919 (July 10) - DED expanded its activity to include farmers’ coop
organizations, rural credit, marketing and animal
insurance;
persons engaged in this work were called farm advisers
1923 - DED was changed to Agricultural Extension Service
- start of Home Extension work (later known as Div. Of Home
Economics) by Maria Y. Orosa

Commonwealth Period
1936 - Commonwealth Act 85 established the provincial Extension Services financed by the provincial and municipal governments
- For the first time, extension service in the Philippines became a serious organized business; position of provincial agriculturist was created; farm advisers were now called extension agents
- Commonwealth Act 649 enacted later increasing appropriation for extension work

1937 - Commonwealth Act 85 authorized each province to
employ a few home demonstrators to show home
extension work
1938 - The Bureau of Animal Industry organized its own
extension activities establishing a Livestock Extension
Division
1942-45 - During Japanese occupation, home economics and
agricultural extension work suffered drawbacks

Post-war period
1947 - Home Extension Units of the Plant Utilization Division of
the Bureau of Plant Industry was fused with Agricultural
Extension of the Bureau; purely research functions were
left with the Plant Utilization Division
1950 - Bell Survey Mission came to the Philippines and
recommended among others, the consolidation of the
scattered extension organizations in the different
bureaus into one that would adequately extent
information to farm families
1952 (July) - enactment of RA 680 that created the Bureau of
agricultural Extension (BAEx)
1963 (Aug 8) - BAEx was renamed Agricultural Productivity Commission
(APC) under the Office of the President
- Agricultural Land Reform Code was signed into Law (RA
3844)
- Since then until Martial Law was declared, several reorganizations happened, there were misunderstanding and inter-departmental conflicts along the way)
1972 (Nov. 1) - the APC was reverted to its original name, the Bureau
of Agricultural Extension
1973 (July 1) - BAEx was placed again under the Department of
Agriculture
- Abaca and other Fibers Board was fused with BAEx
1977 - The Ministry of Agriculture, through BAEx, took over the
preparation of the project study on the adoption of the
Training and Visit System (T and V) in the Philippine
- Agricultural Service (T&V concept was developed by Daniel Benor and James Harrison and introduced in the WB assisted projects)
- Proposal for the National Extension Project (NEP) was appraised by the World Bank Mission
1978 - BAEx became a staff bureau under the Ministry of
Agriculture together with BPI, Bureaus of Soils,
Cooperatives, etc
1979 (Mar 27) - WB approved $35 million loan; NEP became fully
operational
1987 - Exit BAEx, Enter ATI (BAEx, Phil. Agricultural Training
Council and the Philippine Training Center for Rural
Dev’t were merged into the Agricultural Training
Institute)

In Retrospect:
16th C onwards - growth and development of the agricultural
extension service was in response to or a consequence
of certain events of the time
Spanish regime - focus on farm demos were the educational means to
show Filipinos ‘appropriate’ ways of farming
American period - more serious attempts to ‘extend’ agricultural services

Historically, extension was derived from an educational development in England serving the educational needs, near to their homes of the rapidly growing population. Extension was useful to impart information to all classes of community, particularly to such who were unable to avail themselves of experience teachers. It was considered as the process of extending or dissemination relevant information to the adult population at large.


PHILOSOPHY OF EXTENSION

[Philosophy is defined as a set of belief or aim; system of thought (Encarta Encyclopedia, 2004)]
Philosophy:
1. Educational Process – brings about desirable changes in human behavior. These are changes in what people know (knowledge), what they think (attitude), they can do (skills) and what they actually do (motivation); it is carried on either with groups or with individuals
2. Democratic process
- extension workers never impose anything
- promotes self-help
- forming and strengthening of local organizations
- group thinking, discussion, planning and action
3. Indigenous Knowledge – rural people possess basic knowledge, they are intelligent and are
capable of knowing; extension must begin from where they are
4. Continuous process – extension begins with the present situation and strive to achieve a
desirable solution; since there are no limits to our social and economic advancement,
extension therefore is a continuous process

OTHER CONCEPTS OF EXTENSION
-core concept of extension is education (Mosher, 1975)
-a method of non-formal education aimed at inducing behavioral changes to improve
technical knowledge and skills to enable them in income-generating projects…(Swanson, 84)
-an educational activity outside the usual school that involves formal institutions
reaching out to needy clients… (Valera, et.al, 1987)
-It is the dissemination of relevant information and advice to farmers; a mechanism for delivering
information and advice as an input into modern farming.
-It involves the conscious use of communication of information to help people form sound
opinions and make good decisions (Van den Ban, et.al., 1996)

Common Elements in the Definitions of EXTENSION
o Extension is an intervention
o Extension uses communication as its instrument to induce change
o Extension can be effective only through voluntary change
o Extension focuses on a number of different target processes and outcomes which distinguish it from other communication interventions
o Extension is deployed by an institutions

It is therefore, a professional communication intervention deployed by an institution to induce change in voluntary behaviors with a presumed public or collective utility (Roling, 1988)

What is an Intervention?
A systematic effort to strategically apply resources to manipulate seemingly casual elements in an on-going social process so as to permanently re-orient that process in directions deemed desirable by the intervening part.
Technical Intervention vs. Intervening Through People

Technical Intervention:

 animal is sick -unsanitary living conditions
 plant is stunted -meals not nutritious

Intervening Through People:
 No agricultural skills
 traditional knowledge with no scientific basis
 negative attitude

extension agent works to influence changes on the farmers’
inadequacies and negativities for consequent changes in farm/home

TYPES OF EXTENSION:

A. Agricultural Extension - provides technical advice on agriculture to farmers, facilitates the needed requirements and services to support the farmers’ agricultural production efforts. It links farmers with agricultural research stations and passes on new knowledge developed by agricultural research stations.
b. Non-Agricultural Extension - there are other factors that affect farming communities which may not be directly related to agriculture and yet these have effects on the way farmers and their families live, such as concerns on health and nutrition, education, etc.


EXTENSION CATEGORIES (whether agricultural or non-agricultural):
1. Informative extension
2. Emancipatory extension
3. Formative extension
4. Persuasive extension

OBJECTIVES OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION
1. To act as intermediary (mediator) between agricultural development institutions and target groups making available to farmers the latest research results for understanding and application
2. To teach people in rural areas how to raise their standards of living by their own efforts using their own resources of manpower and materials, with the minimum assistance from government and any agencies.
3. To find out what the farming community feels it needs, what are the problems involved and then to supply the answers to these problems/mobilize all necessary resources in extension work including farm inputs, concerned agencies/institutions, funds, facilities, and experts/people involved in the dissemination/adoption of innovation in the rural environment.
4. To encourage local leadership and spirit of self-help
5. To establish/structure new institutions whether state-organized or self-help institutions that
can influence the whole agricultural production system
6. To extend human resource development to underprivileged groups with less access to
formal or vocational education - women farmers, rural youth, and generally small farmers in
remote areas
TARGET CLIENT ELEMENTS OF EFFECTIVE EXTENSION SERVICE
1. -farmers 1. Sustainability
2. -women 2. Accountability
3. -youth 3. Reliability
4. -all 4. Participatory
5. Efficiency

EXTENSION GOALS
Goals lead the actions of individuals, groups, and organizations for the future state, influenced if not determined, by experiences. The structure, the choice of clientele, its operational design, and the methods used, are directly influenced by the goals.

MAJOR CHANGES IN EXTENSION TODAY

Over the years, extension has become more participatory. This means that there is a growing recognition of the importance of the involvement of the local people as active participants in the entire process of research and extension.


EXTENSION MODELS

Transfer of Technology IPM, FFS Mini-enterprise development Natural resource management

Practice Innovations Managing farm as ecosystems Organize for marketing
Collective action
Learning Adoption Complex learning process Becoming an entrepreneur
Social learning
Facilitation Transfer Farmer Field School
Consultancy Mediation
Institutional support Linear Configuration Research Extension
Informal Network decentralization Universities NGOs Civil society collaboration
Policy
Investment in Research and Extension
Removal of subsidies, training

Investment Environmental policy



GLOBAL TRENDS (Qamar, FAO)

1. client-orientation
2. application of electronic information technology
3. participatory extension
-participatory farmer group
-client-oriented
-gender-sensitive
-research-extension-farmer linkages
-development tools (PRA, Knowledge/Attitude/Practice survey)
-empowerment
4. unified extension service