UNIT 2
AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION:
AN INTERVENTION FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
A. Historical Antecedents of Agricultural Extension
a.1 Extension in Europe and in the USA
a.2 Extension in the Philippine Setting
B. Extension Defined
b.1 Philosophy
b.2 Goals and Objectives
b.3 Types of Extension
I. The term "extension"
The use of the word "extension" derives from an educational development in England during the second half of the nineteenth century. Around 1850, discussions began in the two ancient universities of Oxford and Cambridge about how they could serve the educational needs, near to their homes, of the rapidly growing populations in the industrial, urban area. It was not until 1867 that a first practical attempt was made in what was designated "university extension," but the activity developed quickly to become a well-established movement before the end of the century. Initially, most of the lectures given were on literary and social topics. The growth and success of this work in Britain influenced the initiation of similar activity elsewhere, especially in the United States. During the first two decades of this century, the extramural work of the land-grant colleges, concerned with serving the needs of farm families, was to expand dramatically and become formally organized; but the use of the term "extension" continued and has persisted as the designation for the work.
The overt use of the notion of "extending" relevant and useful information to the adult population at large, however, predates the university extension movement. Earlier in the nineteenth century, a British politician, Lord Henry Brougham, an influential advocate of formal education for the poor and of mass adult education, founded the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge in 1826. Its objective was "imparting useful information to all classes of the community, particularly to such as are unable to avail themselves of experienced teachers, or may prefer learning by themselves." The society sought to do this largely through producing low-priced publications and establishing local committees throughout the country "for extending the object of the Society" (Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge 1827). During its twenty years' existence, agricultural topics were well covered in the society's publications. Similar, albeit short-lived, societies were also established before 1840 in several other European countries, India, China, Malaysia, and the United States (in Virginia) (Grobel, 1933; Smith, 1972).
II. The distant origins
The dissemination of relevant information and advice to farmers, however, has a long history prior to the emergence of modem forms of agricultural extension in the nineteenth century.
The first known example was in Mesopotamia (roughly, present-day Iraq) around 1800 B.C. Archaeologists have unearthed clay tablets of the time on which were inscribed advice on watering crops and getting rid of rats - important for mitigating any potential loss of taxation revenue from farmers (Ahmed, 1982, as quoted in Bne Saad, 1990). Some hieroglyphs on Egyptian columns also gave advice on avoiding crop damage and loss of life from the Nile's floods. An important advance was the beginning of agricultural writings. Though few have survived, the earliest were written during the ancient Greek and Phoenician civilizations, but some of them were adapted by Roman writers. From the second century B.C. to the fourth century A.D., several important Latin texts were written, frequently drawing on practical farming experience, which aimed to help Roman landowners to maintain and improve then-estates and their revenues (White, 1970, 1977).
At around the same period in imperial China, early forms of advancing and disseminating agricultural information also began. That landowners and their tenants should improve their production was a matter of concern to the state since, from the sixth century B.C. onwards, it relied heavily on land taxes for its revenues. Necessary conditions for agricultural extension to evolve
III. Towards the Modern Era
The earliest known renaissance agricultural text was written in Latin by Pietro de Crescenzi in 1304 and was translated into Italian and French. This became the first book on agriculture to be printed in the mid-fifteenth century. Others soon followed, often based on the old Latin texts or on the collected wisdom of farmers and their families. A well-known example, a compendium of helpful advice in simple verse and a bestseller in Tudor England, was Thomas Tusser's A hundredth goode pointes of husbandrie, published in 1557 and expanded in 1573 to five hundred good points with as many on "goode housewiferie" (Tusser, 1580). Less popular, but of greater significance, were Francis Bacon's writings early in the next century based on his observations and scientific experiments on his estate north of London - the beginnings of the application of science and scientific method to agriculture (Russell, 1966).
By the mid-eighteenth century, throughout much of Europe, progressive landowners (frequently aristocrats) and their agents and a few similarly minded farmers were being known as "improvers." These, along with some "men of science," were the main proponents of agricultural clubs or societies. At their regular meetings and demonstrations, locally and regionally, landowners and leading farmers exchanged ideas and information and discussed farming improvements.
By the 1820s, most of the elements for creating modem forms of agricultural extension were in being, although each was to develop considerably during the nineteenth century. A crucial missing element, however, was an effective means by which the "generality" of farmers could be directly given information, advice, and encouragement. This required itinerant agriculturists who could meet farmers in their home localities, give instructional talks and demonstrations, advocate superior or new practices, and have discussions with the farmers.
In Europe, agricultural science was evolving rapidly by the 1840s, with notable strides being made in Germany by Justus von Liebig at Giessen, and with the establishment of agricultural experiments at Rothamsted in England in 1843 by John Bennet Lawes and Henry Gilbert. Agricultural societies and their shows were flourishing. Numerous publications and periodicals were aimed at farmers. Agricultural schools, if not commonplace, had been established in most European countries. Thus a small minority of younger landowners and farmers had received a formal education in their calling, while purposely trained agriculturists were available to be engaged as estate agents or teachers. Many of the more progressive landowners employed agents to travel around their estates to urge improved methods on their tenants. The main element necessary to create modern agricultural extension services was for legitimate authorities to establish the necessary organizations - and the germ of this had already been present in France, Germany, and the United States.
IV. The birth of modern agricultural extension services
The first agricultural extension service of a modem kind came into existence as the result of a crisis and the initiative of the occupant of a high office of authority. The crisis was the outbreak of potato blight in Europe in 1845. In Ireland its effects were particularly severe because the predominantly peasant population relied on potatoes in their diet, and "the potato famine" persisted until 1851. The new British viceroy appointed to Ireland in 1847, the Earl of Clarendon, soon after his arrival in Dublin wrote a letter (Jones, 1982) to the president of the Royal Agricultural Improvement Society of Ireland (founded in 1841), which acted as the central society for numerous local agricultural societies. This letter, no less than an official directive, urged the society to appoint itinerant lecturers to travel around the most distressed districts to inform and show small farmers, in simple terms, how to improve their cultivation and how to grow nutritious root crops other than potatoes.
The potato famine also led to employing itinerant farm advisers. When the system was adopted in the kingdom of Bavaria in 1896, it was as an integral part of the state civil service; the extension workers were grandly titled Royal Agricultural Teachers.
By the close of the nineteenth century, agricultural extension systems modelled to a considerable extent on the German Wanderlehrer had spread: to Denmark from 1870 onwards; to the Netherlands, where a few extension workers (wandelleraren) had been appointed by agricultural societies in the late 1840s and 1850s, but had then disappeared before being revived as a government system in the 1890s; to Italy, where the first itinerant agricultural teacher (cattedra ambulante di agricoltura) was appointed in 1886 at Rovigo
A comparable development of farmers' institutes began in Ontario, Canada, in 1885. These were financially supported by the provincial legislature and spread rapidly with lecturers mainly from the Ontario Agricultural College at Guelph (founded in 1874). A somewhat similar system began in Prince Edward Island. Thus, by the end of the last century, a system of agricultural extension work had become well established in a large part of North America. In the United States, the colleges and their leading professors, including several notable proponents of more practical extension work, progressively took over the initiation and organization of the activity. This culminated in 1914 with the passage of the Smith-Lever Act, establishing the Cooperative Extension Service - a tripartite cooperation of federal, state, and local county governments, with the state college as the extension agency - "in order to aid in diffusing among the people of the United States useful and practical information on subjects relating to agriculture and home economics, and to encourage the application of the same."
In the Southern Hemisphere, extension work also became established along the wide coastal belts of southern and eastern Australia. Several agricultural ("show") societies were formed in the second half of the nineteenth century, although their effect was slight, but as the state administrations became more organized, departments of agriculture were established in the 1870s and 1880s with the aim of developing the potential of their territories. They recognized the importance of agricultural education, influenced by British, Irish, and some American examples whose activities were widely reported in the Australian press.
Associated with this development was the official appointment in these states of the first itinerant agricultural instructors in the late 1880s. Agricultural extension work had also started before 1900 in Japan. Following the Meiji Restoration in 1868, new administrative structures and various modernizing policies were adopted. Two agricultural colleges were established in the mid-1870s, staffed by Western (mainly European) teachers.
The development and organization of agricultural extension work was not entirely confined to temperate countries. In a variety of ways, it had also begun in tropical areas, especially in colonial territories.
V. Modern agricultural extension
In the early years of this century, extension services were in their formative stage; they were relatively small in scale and limited in the scope of their work and contact with farmers, and their organization was often somewhat haphazard even though based on legislation. They were organized predominantly either by central or local governments, or by agricultural colleges, usually in close association with experiment stations, or by farmers' organizations (agricultural societies, cooperatives, farmers' unions, or chambers of agriculture), or combinations of these parent bodies. As the century has progressed, the organizations have matured. Changes have often occurred to their parent affiliations, government funding has become relatively more important, their objectives have become broader, especially in "the North," and the extension workers have become better trained and more professional.
As agricultural extension organizations have grown and changed, they have invariably become more bureaucratic with distinct hierarchical structures. The work of dispersed extension workers had to be administered and controlled so that one or more levels of intermediary structure (for example, district, region) have been created between the field-level agents and their headquarters.
During the past quarter century, the work of extension services has often become more diversified. In the less developed countries, the main focus remains on agricultural (mainly food) production, but there has been a growing recognition of the need to reach, influence, and benefit the multitudes of small, resource-poor farmers. Strong efforts have been made in this direction, notably through the training and visit system. Among the commercial farmers of the North, a major problem has become surplus production, with farmers facing economic and policy pressures to restrict it. Associated with intensive production methods, many issues and problems regarding environmental deterioration and livestock welfare have also arisen. Thus these have become important aspects of extension work, particularly socioeconomic guidance which focusses both on means by which farmers might maintain their income levels from their resources (for example, introduction of novel crops or livestock and involvement in various rural enterprises) and on the ways of assuring the longer term welfare of farmers and their families. Agricultural extension services are thus adding a strong social dimension to their activities.
Agricultural extension has now become recognised as an essential mechanism for delivering information and advice as an "input" into modem farming. The pace of change in the organization, functions, strategies, and approaches of agricultural extension is clearly accelerating.
VI. The future
The need for agricultural and rural information and advisory services is likely to intensify in the foreseeable future. In much of the world, agriculture faces the challenge of keeping pace with rapidly increasing population with few reserves of potentially cultivable land. Farmers will have to become more efficient and specialized.
From government perspectives, whatever priority is given to production, extension will remain a key policy tool for promoting ecologically and socially sustainable farming practices.
Some of the most promising recent developments in extension methodology have occurred where the key agenda is environmental or is concerned with equity, for example in the need for the joint management of forests by professionals and local forest users and in integrated pest management. A consistent theme running through the innovative approaches being used, such as participatory rural appraisal (Chambers, 1993), is a fundamental change in what are the respective roles of extension agent and clients. The agent is no longer seen as the expert who has all the useful information and technical solutions; the clients' own knowledge and ingenuity, individually and collectively, are recognized as a major resource; solutions to local problems are to be developed in partnership between agent and clients. Since the scale at which extension support is required is thus often larger than the individual farm, extension workers need new skills of negotiation, conflict resolution, and the nurturing of emerging community organizations (Garforth, 1993; Smith, 1994).
The future is also likely to witness a reversal of recent trends towards bureaucratization within hierarchical extension services and a reduction in their levels of public funding. Moreover, a rapid increase can be expected in the use of information technology in support of extension. The forces for change in these areas (see Rivera & Gustafson, 1991) will come from four main directions.
Economic and Policy Climate
With the collapse during the past decade of socialist forms of economic organization, the (dominant) role of the public sector in national economies has become questionable, with a strengthening trend to reduce levels of public spending. Thus government extension services and those which are largely publicly financed are, and will continue to be, under pressure to become more efficient, to reduce their expenditure and staff, and to pass on (some of) the costs of provision to their clients who directly benefit financially. This is particularly the case in countries where the farm population forms a small minority and agricultural production is in surplus. The case is weaker, but not absent, in less developed countries where farming households form a high proportion of the total population and where increasing food production is still important. Thus charging clients for services is likely to become more widespread, while governments will find it attractive to contract out the operation of services to the private or the voluntary sector.
Social Context in Rural Areas
In the future, rural populations will undoubtedly be progressively better educated, while their exposure to the mass media will continue to reduce their isolation and detachment from information, ideas, and an awareness of their situation within a national and international context. However, this exposure will not reduce the need for extension. Rather, given the changing demands on agricultural producers from population growth, increasing urbanization, legislative changes, and market requirements, the more knowledgeable farming population will require different kinds of extension services. Social and economic trends within rural areas will therefore necessitate more highly trained, specialized, and technically competent workers, who also know where to obtain relevant information and problem solutions and various provision and organizational forms (Moris, 1991; Hayward, 1990) to replace monolithic government extension agencies. These agencies will need to recognize and serve different types of clients defined not in terms of "adopter categories" but of access to markets, degree of commercialization, and relative dependence on agriculture for family income and welfare.
Systems Knowledge
A recognition of the locale-specific nature of farming systems and the agricultural information systems which support them is an important source of the pressure towards the debureaucratization and devolution of extension services. This recognition also implies that extension workers and farmers be jointly involved in the verification and adaptation of new technology, and thus that the extension workers respect farmers as experimenters, developers, and adapters of technology and devote more energy on communication within their local areas. The devolution of extension services to become local organizations is a reasonable corollary of this. Developments in mass media technology, already apparent over a decade ago (Garforth, 1986), will continue to support this localization of extension effort.
Information Technology
The continuing rapid development of telecommunications and computer-based information technology (IT) is probably the biggest factor for change in extension, one which will facilitate and reinforce other changes. There are many possibilities for the potential applications of the technology in agricultural extension (FAO, 1993; Zijp, 1994). IT will bring new information services to rural areas over which farmers, as users, will have much greater control than over current information channels. Even if every farmer does not have a computer terminal, these could become readily available at local information resource centres, with computers carrying expert systems to help farmers to make decisions. However, it will not make extension workers redundant. Rather, they will be able to concentrate on tasks and services where human interaction is essential - in helping farmers individually and in small groups to diagnose problems, to interpret data, and to apply their meaning (Leeuwis, 1993).
The future will call for more able, more independent, more client-oriented extension workers. The emphasis will be on the quality of interaction between agent and client rather than on the movement of "messages" through a hierarchical system.
Flexibility and adaptability will be seen as virtues rather than aberrations. Paradoxically, these trends will bring us full circle to the early manifestations of modem extension in Europe. The itinerant agricultural teachers, unencumbered by large bureaucracies and tall hierarchies, will find their modem counterparts in the computer-carrying extension workers who are at ease helping farmers to identify the information they need in order to realize the potential of their farming operations. Looking back, we can regard the period from 1970 to 1995 as a necessary but expensive stage in the evolution of extension systems, after which extension agents were able to settle down to their main task - bringing together the expertise of farmers and the best available scientific knowledge to develop farms and local agricultural economies.
EXTENSION HISTORY
Beginnings: started in Europe as early as the 16th century
1826 - British politician founded the society for the diffusion of useful knowledge
1840s - use of the term ‘university extension’ of the university was first
recorded in Britain
1867-68 -first practical steps were taken when James Stuart, Fellow of trinity College, Cambridge, gave lectures to women’s associations and working men’s club in the North of England. Stuart is often considered the ‘Father of University Extension’
1871 -Stuart approached authorities in University of Cambridge and appealed to them to organize centers for extension lectures under the university’s supervision
1873 -“Extension Education” was first introduced as an organized
university function
- Cambridge formally adopted the system
1876 - London University followed the system
1880 - the work was referred to as the ‘extension movement’ (i.e., the University extended its use beyond the campus
Beginning of - extension education was used in the USA to indicate that the
20th target group for university teaching should not be
century restricted to students on campus but extended to people living anywhere in the state. For many years this was only an activity of the College of agriculture. Towards the end of the 19th century, Agricultural Extension became widespread in USA
distant origins - Agricultural extension was already made even prior to the emergence of modern agricultural extension (e.g. in Mesopotamia, the present-day Iraq, archaeologist have unearthed clay tablets on which were inscribed advice on watering crops and getting rid of rats
modern - came into the existence as a result of a crisis and the initiative
agricultural of the occupant of the high office of authority-the outbreak of the
extension potato blight in Europe in 1845; severely affected was Ireland; potato famine persisted until 1851
Extension of the Philippines
Spanish Era
1565 - setting of Granja Modelos (model farms); beginnings of
extension work in the Philippines
- First Spanish missionaries initiated education the farmers who grew rice, sugarcane & tobacco in large encomiendas
- Granja served as experimental stations of the Spanish government and demonstration centers for farmers
American Era
1901 (Oct 8) - Beginning of extension work during the American
regime; no definite plan until 30 April 1902 with the
establishment of the Bureau of Agriculture
1910 (July) - creation of the Demonstration and Extension Division
(DED)
under the Bureau making it the first formally organized
government department
1919 (July 10) - DED expanded its activity to include farmers’ coop
organizations, rural credit, marketing and animal
insurance;
persons engaged in this work were called farm advisers
1923 - DED was changed to Agricultural Extension Service
- start of Home Extension work (later known as Div. Of Home
Economics) by Maria Y. Orosa
Commonwealth Period
1936 - Commonwealth Act 85 established the provincial Extension Services financed by the provincial and municipal governments
- For the first time, extension service in the Philippines became a serious organized business; position of provincial agriculturist was created; farm advisers were now called extension agents
- Commonwealth Act 649 enacted later increasing appropriation for extension work
1937 - Commonwealth Act 85 authorized each province to
employ a few home demonstrators to show home
extension work
1938 - The Bureau of Animal Industry organized its own
extension activities establishing a Livestock Extension
Division
1942-45 - During Japanese occupation, home economics and
agricultural extension work suffered drawbacks
Post-war period
1947 - Home Extension Units of the Plant Utilization Division of
the Bureau of Plant Industry was fused with Agricultural
Extension of the Bureau; purely research functions were
left with the Plant Utilization Division
1950 - Bell Survey Mission came to the Philippines and
recommended among others, the consolidation of the
scattered extension organizations in the different
bureaus into one that would adequately extent
information to farm families
1952 (July) - enactment of RA 680 that created the Bureau of
agricultural Extension (BAEx)
1963 (Aug 8) - BAEx was renamed Agricultural Productivity Commission
(APC) under the Office of the President
- Agricultural Land Reform Code was signed into Law (RA
3844)
- Since then until Martial Law was declared, several reorganizations happened, there were misunderstanding and inter-departmental conflicts along the way)
1972 (Nov. 1) - the APC was reverted to its original name, the Bureau
of Agricultural Extension
1973 (July 1) - BAEx was placed again under the Department of
Agriculture
- Abaca and other Fibers Board was fused with BAEx
1977 - The Ministry of Agriculture, through BAEx, took over the
preparation of the project study on the adoption of the
Training and Visit System (T and V) in the Philippine
- Agricultural Service (T&V concept was developed by Daniel Benor and James Harrison and introduced in the WB assisted projects)
- Proposal for the National Extension Project (NEP) was appraised by the World Bank Mission
1978 - BAEx became a staff bureau under the Ministry of
Agriculture together with BPI, Bureaus of Soils,
Cooperatives, etc
1979 (Mar 27) - WB approved $35 million loan; NEP became fully
operational
1987 - Exit BAEx, Enter ATI (BAEx, Phil. Agricultural Training
Council and the Philippine Training Center for Rural
Dev’t were merged into the Agricultural Training
Institute)
In Retrospect:
16th C onwards - growth and development of the agricultural
extension service was in response to or a consequence
of certain events of the time
Spanish regime - focus on farm demos were the educational means to
show Filipinos ‘appropriate’ ways of farming
American period - more serious attempts to ‘extend’ agricultural services
Historically, extension was derived from an educational development in England serving the educational needs, near to their homes of the rapidly growing population. Extension was useful to impart information to all classes of community, particularly to such who were unable to avail themselves of experience teachers. It was considered as the process of extending or dissemination relevant information to the adult population at large.
PHILOSOPHY OF EXTENSION
[Philosophy is defined as a set of belief or aim; system of thought (Encarta Encyclopedia, 2004)]
Philosophy:
1. Educational Process – brings about desirable changes in human behavior. These are changes in what people know (knowledge), what they think (attitude), they can do (skills) and what they actually do (motivation); it is carried on either with groups or with individuals
2. Democratic process
- extension workers never impose anything
- promotes self-help
- forming and strengthening of local organizations
- group thinking, discussion, planning and action
3. Indigenous Knowledge – rural people possess basic knowledge, they are intelligent and are
capable of knowing; extension must begin from where they are
4. Continuous process – extension begins with the present situation and strive to achieve a
desirable solution; since there are no limits to our social and economic advancement,
extension therefore is a continuous process
OTHER CONCEPTS OF EXTENSION
-core concept of extension is education (Mosher, 1975)
-a method of non-formal education aimed at inducing behavioral changes to improve
technical knowledge and skills to enable them in income-generating projects…(Swanson, 84)
-an educational activity outside the usual school that involves formal institutions
reaching out to needy clients… (Valera, et.al, 1987)
-It is the dissemination of relevant information and advice to farmers; a mechanism for delivering
information and advice as an input into modern farming.
-It involves the conscious use of communication of information to help people form sound
opinions and make good decisions (Van den Ban, et.al., 1996)
Common Elements in the Definitions of EXTENSION
o Extension is an intervention
o Extension uses communication as its instrument to induce change
o Extension can be effective only through voluntary change
o Extension focuses on a number of different target processes and outcomes which distinguish it from other communication interventions
o Extension is deployed by an institutions
It is therefore, a professional communication intervention deployed by an institution to induce change in voluntary behaviors with a presumed public or collective utility (Roling, 1988)
What is an Intervention?
A systematic effort to strategically apply resources to manipulate seemingly casual elements in an on-going social process so as to permanently re-orient that process in directions deemed desirable by the intervening part.
Technical Intervention vs. Intervening Through People
Technical Intervention:
animal is sick -unsanitary living conditions
plant is stunted -meals not nutritious
Intervening Through People:
No agricultural skills
traditional knowledge with no scientific basis
negative attitude
extension agent works to influence changes on the farmers’
inadequacies and negativities for consequent changes in farm/home
TYPES OF EXTENSION:
A. Agricultural Extension - provides technical advice on agriculture to farmers, facilitates the needed requirements and services to support the farmers’ agricultural production efforts. It links farmers with agricultural research stations and passes on new knowledge developed by agricultural research stations.
b. Non-Agricultural Extension - there are other factors that affect farming communities which may not be directly related to agriculture and yet these have effects on the way farmers and their families live, such as concerns on health and nutrition, education, etc.
EXTENSION CATEGORIES (whether agricultural or non-agricultural):
1. Informative extension
2. Emancipatory extension
3. Formative extension
4. Persuasive extension
OBJECTIVES OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION
1. To act as intermediary (mediator) between agricultural development institutions and target groups making available to farmers the latest research results for understanding and application
2. To teach people in rural areas how to raise their standards of living by their own efforts using their own resources of manpower and materials, with the minimum assistance from government and any agencies.
3. To find out what the farming community feels it needs, what are the problems involved and then to supply the answers to these problems/mobilize all necessary resources in extension work including farm inputs, concerned agencies/institutions, funds, facilities, and experts/people involved in the dissemination/adoption of innovation in the rural environment.
4. To encourage local leadership and spirit of self-help
5. To establish/structure new institutions whether state-organized or self-help institutions that
can influence the whole agricultural production system
6. To extend human resource development to underprivileged groups with less access to
formal or vocational education - women farmers, rural youth, and generally small farmers in
remote areas
TARGET CLIENT ELEMENTS OF EFFECTIVE EXTENSION SERVICE
1. -farmers 1. Sustainability
2. -women 2. Accountability
3. -youth 3. Reliability
4. -all 4. Participatory
5. Efficiency
EXTENSION GOALS
Goals lead the actions of individuals, groups, and organizations for the future state, influenced if not determined, by experiences. The structure, the choice of clientele, its operational design, and the methods used, are directly influenced by the goals.
MAJOR CHANGES IN EXTENSION TODAY
Over the years, extension has become more participatory. This means that there is a growing recognition of the importance of the involvement of the local people as active participants in the entire process of research and extension.
EXTENSION MODELS
Transfer of Technology IPM, FFS Mini-enterprise development Natural resource management
Practice Innovations Managing farm as ecosystems Organize for marketing
Collective action
Learning Adoption Complex learning process Becoming an entrepreneur
Social learning
Facilitation Transfer Farmer Field School
Consultancy Mediation
Institutional support Linear Configuration Research Extension
Informal Network decentralization Universities NGOs Civil society collaboration
Policy
Investment in Research and Extension
Removal of subsidies, training
Investment Environmental policy
GLOBAL TRENDS (Qamar, FAO)
1. client-orientation
2. application of electronic information technology
3. participatory extension
-participatory farmer group
-client-oriented
-gender-sensitive
-research-extension-farmer linkages
-development tools (PRA, Knowledge/Attitude/Practice survey)
-empowerment
4. unified extension service
Wednesday, June 25, 2008
Tuesday, June 17, 2008
Unit 1 notes and assignment
I. UNIT 1 NOTES
UNDERSTANDING AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT: THE CONTEXT OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION
UNDERSTANDING AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
DEFINING DEVELOPMENT
• going beyond criteria based on indices of per capita income (statistical forms as well as those which concentrate on the study of gross income are misleading). Basic criterion is whether or not the society is a “being for itself”, i.e., its political, economic and cultural decision-making power is located within.” -Paulo Freire
• need oriented, geared to meeting both material and non material human needs; endogenous, stemming from the heart of each society; self-reliant; ecologically sound, utilizing rationally the resources of the biosphere; and based on structural transformation as an integrated whole.
• (60s) most accurate measure of development was gross national product - total money value of goods and services produced by a country in a given year. (70s) development does not only mean GNP but also on the improvement of the quality of life of the individual; person has become the yardstick.
• Should be defined to include both growth and distribution under periods of both stability and change in institutional arrangements (Havens, 1972)
• Normative concept, almost synonymous with improvement, growth, advancement, progress
• Creating the conditions for the realization of human personality (Seers, 1972)
• no universal, fixed definition - it is relative, multi-dimensional, and process oriented.
AIM OF DEVELOPMENT
• to help people become more productive
• to improve quality of life for individuals, families, communities and countries as a whole
• As people become more productive, country is in better position to trade with others
• more trade means more goods and services to continue improving living conditions
ASPECTS OF DEVELOPMENT
1. Economically - accumulation of human capital and its effective investment in the
dev’t of economy
2. Politically - process which prepares people for participation in political affairs,
especially as citizens of a democratic country
3. Socially and Culturally - helps people lead fuller, richer lives less bound by traditions
4. Ethically - entails improvement in the quality as well as quantity of life
SOME DEVELOPMENT THEORIES
1. Growth Theories
a) Balanced Growth Theory- agriculture and industry sectors receive equal shares of investment
b) Lewis Dual Theory
It tries to prove that modern industrial sector will attract workers from the rural areas. But the theory is not all that perfect, it has its lapses. it may have helped the farmers to work better and easier, but the theory can't stand on its own two feet. The Lewis model explains how labor transfers in a dual economy. For Lewis, growth of industrial sector drives economic growth. The Model argues that economic growth requires structural change in the economy whereby surplus labor in agricultural sector with low or zero marginal products, migrate to the modern industrial sector where high rising marginal product is available.
b)
c) Unbalanced Growth Theory - includes the following theories:
b.1 Deliberate unbalancing theory - involves the prioritization of two sectors (agriculture
and industry). One sector receives greater portion of investments. As this sector
develops, the effects spill out to other sectors, thus development still occurs
b.2 Capital accumulation theory involves the utilization of the unlimited supplies of labor
found in agriculture sector. The assumption here is that once the unlimited supplies
of labor are used, development occurs. However, this theory occurs only in the
capitalist (industrial sector of society)
b.3 Growth through savings and investment theory-states that every economy must
save a certain proportion of its national income if only to replace wornout capital
goods. The latter includes buildings, equipment and materials. However, to grow, a
country needs new investments representing net additions to the capital stock
2. Structural Theories
a) Dependency theory (Rostow)- views developing countries as being beset by
institutional and structural rigidities and caught up in a dependent and dominant
relationship with rich nations. The development of a dependent country is conditioned
by the powerful country with which the former is attached. First World nations
actively, but not necessarily consciously, perpetuate a state of dependency through
various policies and initiatives. This state of dependency is multifaceted, involving
economics, media control, politics, banking and finance, education, sports and all
aspects of human resource development.
b) Developmentalism theory-it is basically welfare-oriented. It believes that the major
goal of development is human welfare. It opts for structural reforms that are equity-
oriented or redistributive
3. STAGE THEORY
Rostow’s Linear Theory is a good way of transforming an underemployed rural society to a productive urban– industrial society. The transformation or the development is on a stage-by-stage basis, no shortcuts. Though not a fast transformation, but still sustainable if properly practiced. Savings and capital formation (accumulation) are central to the process of growth. The key to development is to mobilize savings to generate the investment to set in motion self generating economic growth. Development requires substantial investment in capital equipment; to foster growth in developing nations the right conditions for such investment would have to be created. That is, in order to achieve modernization and sustain the economic development, proper and right practice especially with regards to savings and investments should be done.
3. Liberation Theory
It focuses on the poor and the oppressed. Gustavo Gutiérrez is known as the father of liberation theology. The causes of social issues such as Christian poverty, female criminality, differences in class, in social and economic power, in educational opportunity and achievement, in health and physical well-being, are the expressions and result of institutionalized inequalities in opportunity. Liberation is possible to recover the buried memories of our socialization, to share our stories and heal the hurts imposed by the conditioning, to act in the present in a humane and caring manner, to rebuild our human connections and to change our world. Gutiérrez has emphasized a commitment of solidarity with the poor, with those who suffer misery and injustice.
KARL MARX THEORY
For Karl Marx, the basic determining factor of human history is economics. According to him, humans even from their earliest beginnings are not motivated by grand ideas but instead by material concerns, like the need to eat and survive. This is the basic premise of a materialist view of history. At the beginning, people worked together in unity and it wasn’t so bad. But eventually, humans developed agriculture and the concept of private property. These two facts created a division of labor and a separation of classes based upon power and wealth. This, in turn, created the social conflict which drive society. Societal power relationships are dialectical All of this is made worse by capitalism which only increases the disparity between the wealthy classes and the labor classes. Confrontation between them is unavoidable because those classes are driven by historical forces beyond anyone’s control. That power relationships in the modern society are based on economic relationships. The economic factors are the key to social changes. Labor has become the means of creating wealth of a society. The society is the product of its people's actions. The society reflects what kind of people it has.
4. Advantage Theory
The principle of comparative advantage is clearly counter-intuitive. Many results from the formal model are contrary to simple logic. Secondly, the theory is easy to confuse with another notion about advantageous trade, known in trade theory as the theory of absolute advantage. The logic behind absolute advantage is quite intuitive. This confusion between these two concepts leads many people to think that they understand comparative advantage when in fact, what they understand, is absolute advantage.
The model assumes only two countries producing two goods using just one factor of production. There is no capital or land or other resources needed for production. The real world, on the other hand, consists of many countries producing many goods using many factors of production. Each market is assumed to be perfectly competitive, when in reality there are many industries in which firms have market power. Labor productivity is assumed fixed, when in actuality it changes over time, perhaps based on past production levels. Full employment is assumed, when clearly workers cannot be immediately and costlessly moved to other industries. Also, all workers are assumed identical. This means that when a worker is moved from one industry to another, he or she is immediately as productive as every other worker who was previously employed there.
5. Staple Theory
Staple theory says: extensive growth for primary export leads to diversification and industrialization if the country exports the "right staple". Staple theory was developed with Canada in mind, and has been the most widely accepted explanation for Canada's economic development. Canada's economic development is thus seen as having depended on the early development of the wheat economy.
APPROACHES TO DEVELOPMENT
1. Welfare – spontaneous response to manifestation of poverty usually done by the rich;
commonly referred to as “dole-out” by solving the problem and by filling the gap.
basic needs are minimum requirements essential for decent human existence,
2. Modernization (project) – introduces all resources lacking in the community (e.g. capital, technology, infrastructure, etc.)
3. Ethical – treats a person as the end of the development process and not the means to the end it is also known as “humanism approach” that aims to provide all men the opportunity to live full human lives
4. Liberationist – empowering the poor and the marginalized to break away from unjust structure/system so that they can pursue their interests. It is also known as “conscientization” which is the state of the problems affecting oneself and the society (reflection) and working towards solving such problems collectively with others (action)
In 1973, the Development Academy of the Philippines listed the following development indeces, each is measurable and quantitative:
1. health and nutrition
2. education and skills
3. income and consumption
4. employment
5. capital and non-human resources
6. housing, utilities and environment
7. public safety and justice
8. social mobility
9. political values
AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
What is Agricultural development?
The process of making fuller and more rational use of agricultural resources of a country (or of an area) with special reference to improving the efficiency of agriculture and level of the agricultural population
An intentional change of an agricultural system, which is considered desirable by people. This could be affected by:
Change in access to productive resources
Change in technology
Change in interrelationships between persons and institutions
Change in environment such as demand for a certain commodity produced in the area and the price relations
Active intervention by an agency from outside
Among the changes in agriculture are the evolving technologies of modern agriculture and sustainable agriculture
Features of Modern Agriculture:
1. Dynamic society that welcomes innovation and change
2. Highly productive and competitive because it uses modern production and
management technology
3. Manned by an enterprising tiller who exercises hi or her right to choose what
technology to apply, what crops to raise and when, and to whom to sell his or her
product to get the highest returns.
COMPONENTS OF AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
Component Elements Essentials Accelerators
PRODUCTION Farm
Farmer
Farm business Production incentives
Constantly changing
Technologies Production Credit
MARKETING Demands for products
Market system
Confidence in the market systems Market performance
Transportation
SUPPLY Quality
Availability and accessibility
Technical effectiveness Production incentives Production credit
Education for development
GOVERNANCE Quality control
Law and order
Activity regulation Production incentives Group actions by farmers
Improving and expanding
agricultural lands
National planning for
agricultural dev’t.
RESEARCH Identification & location of
researchers to undertake
Location, organization and
administration of research
stations Availability of supplies
and equipment
Constantly changing
technology
Personal Competence National planning for
regional development
EDUCATION
EXTENSION Demand for extension science,
training, and skills Constantly changing
Technologies National Planning
for agricultural dev’t
Education for development
SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
Framework And Dimensions
1. Ecologically and Environmentally Sound
-biodiversity (where a diverse host of creatures live with other species promotion to multiple varieties/cropping, crop rotation, integration, genetic conservation, alternative/ecological pest management, use of natural pesticides/biological control/ water management/multiple cropping/locally adapted seeds, diversifies integrated farming systems)
2. Economically Viable (hidden costs on health, soil, water, environment)
3. Socially Just and Humane
- respects human dignity
- equitable
- land to till
- access to services
- intergenerational equity
- consumers’ rights on toxic free products
- fair trading
- farmers’ control on production inputs
4. Culturally Sensitive and Appropriate
- respects traditions, values, beliefs and culture of people
- indigenous knowledge
- local knowledge
- sharing of resources/knowledge
- local communication systems (participatory extension)
5. Appropriate Technology
- location specific (crop, climate, soils, management, market, pests/diseases, etc.)
- participatory research
- affordability
6. Grounded in Holistic Science
- integrative of local/indigenous knowledge, non-reductionist
- values in farming
- respect on the integrity of creation
- spiritual dimension
7. Total Human Development
- capacity
- confidence
- analytical ability
- head, mind, heart and body
Sustainability Concerns and Issue:
• SURVIVAL - Main requirement is sufficient food and the means to achieve this is Agriculture
• ECOLOGICALLY ACCEPTABLE PRODUCTION - Where everything removed is replaced so as not to harm ecological system
• THRIVING ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL ORDER - With production structures and relationships which ensure a fair distribution of income, power, and opportunities, providing basis for social peace
• LONG-TERM CARRYING CAPACITY OF REGIONS – Where there is no negative impact on the environment.
COUNTRY EXPERIENCES
Summary Of Agriculture
Descriptions/
Considerations First Second Third
Industrial Revolution Green Revolution “Undervalued Resource”
Main Locations Industrialized Countries Irrigated and high rainfall, high potential areas in the Third World Rained tropics, hinterlands, most of sub-Saharan Africa, etc.
Description of Farming System (relatively…) Simple Simple Complex
Description of Environmental Diversity (relatively…) Uniform Diverse Diverse
Use of External Inputs Very High High Low
Agricultural Research and Development Approach On station research and transfer of Technology (actual) Farmers’ Field (desirable)
(generating…) Package of Practices Basket of choices
Condition Overdeveloped Developed Underdeveloped
Current Production as Percentage of Sustainable Production Far Too High Often Near the Limit Low
Priority Reduce Production Maintain Production Raise Production
AGRICULTURE LAWS
Republic Act 3639 - The Bureau of Plant Industry (BPI) was created to take over the tasks
on plant research on crop production. Strengthened by Act No. 4007 also known as
Reorganization Law of 1932
Executive Order 216 - Farm Operation division was created to plan and program research
utilization and assignment of arm machinery, to introduce effective farm crop practices
and to provide assistance inefficient management to the bureau’s farm
EO 116 - Placing BPI as staff bureau under the production Group
Presidential Decree 1433 - The plant Quarantine Law
- Plant Quarantine being an activity necessary in crop protection specifically mandates BPI to “prevent the introduction of exotic pests in the country and prevent further spread of plant pests already existing from infested to pest-free areas and to enforce phytosanitary measures for the export of plants, plant product and related articles.
RA 7308 - The National Seed Industry development Act
- Cognizant of the BPI roles in the development of the seen industry and it inherent function for seed and plant material certification, the Act strengthens the Seed Quality Control Section to become the National Seed Quality Control Service and given control supervision over existing field inspections and control services and seed testing laboratories and those which shall have to be established
RA 6657 - Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law of 1988
- (An act to promote a more equitable distribution and ownership of land with due regard
to the rights of landowners to just compensation and to the ecological needs of the
nation)
RA 7900 - High Value Crops Development Act of 1995
- (An act to promote the production, processing, marketing and distribution of high-
valued crops)
RA 8435 - Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization Act of 1997
-(An act prescribing urgent related measures to modernize the agriculture and fisheries
sectors of the country to enhance profitability and prepare said sectors for the
challenges of globalization)
RA 7394 - Consumer Act of 1992
-This act reiterates BPI functions by specifically mandating BPI to ensure safe supply of
fresh agricultural crops, and improve the quality of local fresh agricultural crops and
promotes its export
RA 7607 - Magna Carta for Small Farmers
- Recognizing BPI expertise and inherent functions pesticides residue analysis and pesticide formulation, seed production and certification, research, technology transfer and crop protection
MO No. 12 (03 March 2006)
Temporary Ban on the Importation of FMD-Susceptible Animals, their Products and By-Products Originating from Argentina
AO No. 5 (07 March 2006)
Delineation in the Registration of Animal Feeds and Veterinary Drugs and Products
AO 06 (18 April 2006)
Guidelines on the Production, Regulation, Promotion, Procurement and Distribution of Seeds and Planting Materials
Department Order No. 03 series of 2007 designates the Agricultural Training Institute as lead agency for the provision of e-Extension services in collaboration with the various agencies, bureaus and organizational units of the DA. This is to integrate and harmonize ICT-based extension delivery system for agriculture and fisheries.
The electronic delivery of extension service is a network of institutions that provide a more efficient alternative to a traditional extension system for agriculture, fisheries and natural resources sectors. It maximizes the use of information and communication technology to attain a modernized agriculture and fisheries sector. It focuses on creating an electronic and interactive bridge where farmers, fishers and other stakeholders meet and transact to enhance productivity, profitability and global competitiveness
II. ASSIGNMENT
1. Encode your answers to the following questions:
1.1 What development approach would be appropriate for the Philippine condition
given our present state? Why?
1.2 During Pres Fidel Ramos' time, he envisioned the Philippines to be a
"newly industrialized country" or NIC by 2000. Was it realized? If yes,
what is your basis? If no, why did it fail?
2. Submit your assignment on Thursday, 19 July
3. REminder: Submit the signed/approved technology by your department/unit head on
Thursday
Good luck!
UNDERSTANDING AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT: THE CONTEXT OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION
UNDERSTANDING AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
DEFINING DEVELOPMENT
• going beyond criteria based on indices of per capita income (statistical forms as well as those which concentrate on the study of gross income are misleading). Basic criterion is whether or not the society is a “being for itself”, i.e., its political, economic and cultural decision-making power is located within.” -Paulo Freire
• need oriented, geared to meeting both material and non material human needs; endogenous, stemming from the heart of each society; self-reliant; ecologically sound, utilizing rationally the resources of the biosphere; and based on structural transformation as an integrated whole.
• (60s) most accurate measure of development was gross national product - total money value of goods and services produced by a country in a given year. (70s) development does not only mean GNP but also on the improvement of the quality of life of the individual; person has become the yardstick.
• Should be defined to include both growth and distribution under periods of both stability and change in institutional arrangements (Havens, 1972)
• Normative concept, almost synonymous with improvement, growth, advancement, progress
• Creating the conditions for the realization of human personality (Seers, 1972)
• no universal, fixed definition - it is relative, multi-dimensional, and process oriented.
AIM OF DEVELOPMENT
• to help people become more productive
• to improve quality of life for individuals, families, communities and countries as a whole
• As people become more productive, country is in better position to trade with others
• more trade means more goods and services to continue improving living conditions
ASPECTS OF DEVELOPMENT
1. Economically - accumulation of human capital and its effective investment in the
dev’t of economy
2. Politically - process which prepares people for participation in political affairs,
especially as citizens of a democratic country
3. Socially and Culturally - helps people lead fuller, richer lives less bound by traditions
4. Ethically - entails improvement in the quality as well as quantity of life
SOME DEVELOPMENT THEORIES
1. Growth Theories
a) Balanced Growth Theory- agriculture and industry sectors receive equal shares of investment
b) Lewis Dual Theory
It tries to prove that modern industrial sector will attract workers from the rural areas. But the theory is not all that perfect, it has its lapses. it may have helped the farmers to work better and easier, but the theory can't stand on its own two feet. The Lewis model explains how labor transfers in a dual economy. For Lewis, growth of industrial sector drives economic growth. The Model argues that economic growth requires structural change in the economy whereby surplus labor in agricultural sector with low or zero marginal products, migrate to the modern industrial sector where high rising marginal product is available.
b)
c) Unbalanced Growth Theory - includes the following theories:
b.1 Deliberate unbalancing theory - involves the prioritization of two sectors (agriculture
and industry). One sector receives greater portion of investments. As this sector
develops, the effects spill out to other sectors, thus development still occurs
b.2 Capital accumulation theory involves the utilization of the unlimited supplies of labor
found in agriculture sector. The assumption here is that once the unlimited supplies
of labor are used, development occurs. However, this theory occurs only in the
capitalist (industrial sector of society)
b.3 Growth through savings and investment theory-states that every economy must
save a certain proportion of its national income if only to replace wornout capital
goods. The latter includes buildings, equipment and materials. However, to grow, a
country needs new investments representing net additions to the capital stock
2. Structural Theories
a) Dependency theory (Rostow)- views developing countries as being beset by
institutional and structural rigidities and caught up in a dependent and dominant
relationship with rich nations. The development of a dependent country is conditioned
by the powerful country with which the former is attached. First World nations
actively, but not necessarily consciously, perpetuate a state of dependency through
various policies and initiatives. This state of dependency is multifaceted, involving
economics, media control, politics, banking and finance, education, sports and all
aspects of human resource development.
b) Developmentalism theory-it is basically welfare-oriented. It believes that the major
goal of development is human welfare. It opts for structural reforms that are equity-
oriented or redistributive
3. STAGE THEORY
Rostow’s Linear Theory is a good way of transforming an underemployed rural society to a productive urban– industrial society. The transformation or the development is on a stage-by-stage basis, no shortcuts. Though not a fast transformation, but still sustainable if properly practiced. Savings and capital formation (accumulation) are central to the process of growth. The key to development is to mobilize savings to generate the investment to set in motion self generating economic growth. Development requires substantial investment in capital equipment; to foster growth in developing nations the right conditions for such investment would have to be created. That is, in order to achieve modernization and sustain the economic development, proper and right practice especially with regards to savings and investments should be done.
3. Liberation Theory
It focuses on the poor and the oppressed. Gustavo Gutiérrez is known as the father of liberation theology. The causes of social issues such as Christian poverty, female criminality, differences in class, in social and economic power, in educational opportunity and achievement, in health and physical well-being, are the expressions and result of institutionalized inequalities in opportunity. Liberation is possible to recover the buried memories of our socialization, to share our stories and heal the hurts imposed by the conditioning, to act in the present in a humane and caring manner, to rebuild our human connections and to change our world. Gutiérrez has emphasized a commitment of solidarity with the poor, with those who suffer misery and injustice.
KARL MARX THEORY
For Karl Marx, the basic determining factor of human history is economics. According to him, humans even from their earliest beginnings are not motivated by grand ideas but instead by material concerns, like the need to eat and survive. This is the basic premise of a materialist view of history. At the beginning, people worked together in unity and it wasn’t so bad. But eventually, humans developed agriculture and the concept of private property. These two facts created a division of labor and a separation of classes based upon power and wealth. This, in turn, created the social conflict which drive society. Societal power relationships are dialectical All of this is made worse by capitalism which only increases the disparity between the wealthy classes and the labor classes. Confrontation between them is unavoidable because those classes are driven by historical forces beyond anyone’s control. That power relationships in the modern society are based on economic relationships. The economic factors are the key to social changes. Labor has become the means of creating wealth of a society. The society is the product of its people's actions. The society reflects what kind of people it has.
4. Advantage Theory
The principle of comparative advantage is clearly counter-intuitive. Many results from the formal model are contrary to simple logic. Secondly, the theory is easy to confuse with another notion about advantageous trade, known in trade theory as the theory of absolute advantage. The logic behind absolute advantage is quite intuitive. This confusion between these two concepts leads many people to think that they understand comparative advantage when in fact, what they understand, is absolute advantage.
The model assumes only two countries producing two goods using just one factor of production. There is no capital or land or other resources needed for production. The real world, on the other hand, consists of many countries producing many goods using many factors of production. Each market is assumed to be perfectly competitive, when in reality there are many industries in which firms have market power. Labor productivity is assumed fixed, when in actuality it changes over time, perhaps based on past production levels. Full employment is assumed, when clearly workers cannot be immediately and costlessly moved to other industries. Also, all workers are assumed identical. This means that when a worker is moved from one industry to another, he or she is immediately as productive as every other worker who was previously employed there.
5. Staple Theory
Staple theory says: extensive growth for primary export leads to diversification and industrialization if the country exports the "right staple". Staple theory was developed with Canada in mind, and has been the most widely accepted explanation for Canada's economic development. Canada's economic development is thus seen as having depended on the early development of the wheat economy.
APPROACHES TO DEVELOPMENT
1. Welfare – spontaneous response to manifestation of poverty usually done by the rich;
commonly referred to as “dole-out” by solving the problem and by filling the gap.
basic needs are minimum requirements essential for decent human existence,
2. Modernization (project) – introduces all resources lacking in the community (e.g. capital, technology, infrastructure, etc.)
3. Ethical – treats a person as the end of the development process and not the means to the end it is also known as “humanism approach” that aims to provide all men the opportunity to live full human lives
4. Liberationist – empowering the poor and the marginalized to break away from unjust structure/system so that they can pursue their interests. It is also known as “conscientization” which is the state of the problems affecting oneself and the society (reflection) and working towards solving such problems collectively with others (action)
In 1973, the Development Academy of the Philippines listed the following development indeces, each is measurable and quantitative:
1. health and nutrition
2. education and skills
3. income and consumption
4. employment
5. capital and non-human resources
6. housing, utilities and environment
7. public safety and justice
8. social mobility
9. political values
AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
What is Agricultural development?
The process of making fuller and more rational use of agricultural resources of a country (or of an area) with special reference to improving the efficiency of agriculture and level of the agricultural population
An intentional change of an agricultural system, which is considered desirable by people. This could be affected by:
Change in access to productive resources
Change in technology
Change in interrelationships between persons and institutions
Change in environment such as demand for a certain commodity produced in the area and the price relations
Active intervention by an agency from outside
Among the changes in agriculture are the evolving technologies of modern agriculture and sustainable agriculture
Features of Modern Agriculture:
1. Dynamic society that welcomes innovation and change
2. Highly productive and competitive because it uses modern production and
management technology
3. Manned by an enterprising tiller who exercises hi or her right to choose what
technology to apply, what crops to raise and when, and to whom to sell his or her
product to get the highest returns.
COMPONENTS OF AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
Component Elements Essentials Accelerators
PRODUCTION Farm
Farmer
Farm business Production incentives
Constantly changing
Technologies Production Credit
MARKETING Demands for products
Market system
Confidence in the market systems Market performance
Transportation
SUPPLY Quality
Availability and accessibility
Technical effectiveness Production incentives Production credit
Education for development
GOVERNANCE Quality control
Law and order
Activity regulation Production incentives Group actions by farmers
Improving and expanding
agricultural lands
National planning for
agricultural dev’t.
RESEARCH Identification & location of
researchers to undertake
Location, organization and
administration of research
stations Availability of supplies
and equipment
Constantly changing
technology
Personal Competence National planning for
regional development
EDUCATION
EXTENSION Demand for extension science,
training, and skills Constantly changing
Technologies National Planning
for agricultural dev’t
Education for development
SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
Framework And Dimensions
1. Ecologically and Environmentally Sound
-biodiversity (where a diverse host of creatures live with other species promotion to multiple varieties/cropping, crop rotation, integration, genetic conservation, alternative/ecological pest management, use of natural pesticides/biological control/ water management/multiple cropping/locally adapted seeds, diversifies integrated farming systems)
2. Economically Viable (hidden costs on health, soil, water, environment)
3. Socially Just and Humane
- respects human dignity
- equitable
- land to till
- access to services
- intergenerational equity
- consumers’ rights on toxic free products
- fair trading
- farmers’ control on production inputs
4. Culturally Sensitive and Appropriate
- respects traditions, values, beliefs and culture of people
- indigenous knowledge
- local knowledge
- sharing of resources/knowledge
- local communication systems (participatory extension)
5. Appropriate Technology
- location specific (crop, climate, soils, management, market, pests/diseases, etc.)
- participatory research
- affordability
6. Grounded in Holistic Science
- integrative of local/indigenous knowledge, non-reductionist
- values in farming
- respect on the integrity of creation
- spiritual dimension
7. Total Human Development
- capacity
- confidence
- analytical ability
- head, mind, heart and body
Sustainability Concerns and Issue:
• SURVIVAL - Main requirement is sufficient food and the means to achieve this is Agriculture
• ECOLOGICALLY ACCEPTABLE PRODUCTION - Where everything removed is replaced so as not to harm ecological system
• THRIVING ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL ORDER - With production structures and relationships which ensure a fair distribution of income, power, and opportunities, providing basis for social peace
• LONG-TERM CARRYING CAPACITY OF REGIONS – Where there is no negative impact on the environment.
COUNTRY EXPERIENCES
Summary Of Agriculture
Descriptions/
Considerations First Second Third
Industrial Revolution Green Revolution “Undervalued Resource”
Main Locations Industrialized Countries Irrigated and high rainfall, high potential areas in the Third World Rained tropics, hinterlands, most of sub-Saharan Africa, etc.
Description of Farming System (relatively…) Simple Simple Complex
Description of Environmental Diversity (relatively…) Uniform Diverse Diverse
Use of External Inputs Very High High Low
Agricultural Research and Development Approach On station research and transfer of Technology (actual) Farmers’ Field (desirable)
(generating…) Package of Practices Basket of choices
Condition Overdeveloped Developed Underdeveloped
Current Production as Percentage of Sustainable Production Far Too High Often Near the Limit Low
Priority Reduce Production Maintain Production Raise Production
AGRICULTURE LAWS
Republic Act 3639 - The Bureau of Plant Industry (BPI) was created to take over the tasks
on plant research on crop production. Strengthened by Act No. 4007 also known as
Reorganization Law of 1932
Executive Order 216 - Farm Operation division was created to plan and program research
utilization and assignment of arm machinery, to introduce effective farm crop practices
and to provide assistance inefficient management to the bureau’s farm
EO 116 - Placing BPI as staff bureau under the production Group
Presidential Decree 1433 - The plant Quarantine Law
- Plant Quarantine being an activity necessary in crop protection specifically mandates BPI to “prevent the introduction of exotic pests in the country and prevent further spread of plant pests already existing from infested to pest-free areas and to enforce phytosanitary measures for the export of plants, plant product and related articles.
RA 7308 - The National Seed Industry development Act
- Cognizant of the BPI roles in the development of the seen industry and it inherent function for seed and plant material certification, the Act strengthens the Seed Quality Control Section to become the National Seed Quality Control Service and given control supervision over existing field inspections and control services and seed testing laboratories and those which shall have to be established
RA 6657 - Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law of 1988
- (An act to promote a more equitable distribution and ownership of land with due regard
to the rights of landowners to just compensation and to the ecological needs of the
nation)
RA 7900 - High Value Crops Development Act of 1995
- (An act to promote the production, processing, marketing and distribution of high-
valued crops)
RA 8435 - Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization Act of 1997
-(An act prescribing urgent related measures to modernize the agriculture and fisheries
sectors of the country to enhance profitability and prepare said sectors for the
challenges of globalization)
RA 7394 - Consumer Act of 1992
-This act reiterates BPI functions by specifically mandating BPI to ensure safe supply of
fresh agricultural crops, and improve the quality of local fresh agricultural crops and
promotes its export
RA 7607 - Magna Carta for Small Farmers
- Recognizing BPI expertise and inherent functions pesticides residue analysis and pesticide formulation, seed production and certification, research, technology transfer and crop protection
MO No. 12 (03 March 2006)
Temporary Ban on the Importation of FMD-Susceptible Animals, their Products and By-Products Originating from Argentina
AO No. 5 (07 March 2006)
Delineation in the Registration of Animal Feeds and Veterinary Drugs and Products
AO 06 (18 April 2006)
Guidelines on the Production, Regulation, Promotion, Procurement and Distribution of Seeds and Planting Materials
Department Order No. 03 series of 2007 designates the Agricultural Training Institute as lead agency for the provision of e-Extension services in collaboration with the various agencies, bureaus and organizational units of the DA. This is to integrate and harmonize ICT-based extension delivery system for agriculture and fisheries.
The electronic delivery of extension service is a network of institutions that provide a more efficient alternative to a traditional extension system for agriculture, fisheries and natural resources sectors. It maximizes the use of information and communication technology to attain a modernized agriculture and fisheries sector. It focuses on creating an electronic and interactive bridge where farmers, fishers and other stakeholders meet and transact to enhance productivity, profitability and global competitiveness
II. ASSIGNMENT
1. Encode your answers to the following questions:
1.1 What development approach would be appropriate for the Philippine condition
given our present state? Why?
1.2 During Pres Fidel Ramos' time, he envisioned the Philippines to be a
"newly industrialized country" or NIC by 2000. Was it realized? If yes,
what is your basis? If no, why did it fail?
2. Submit your assignment on Thursday, 19 July
3. REminder: Submit the signed/approved technology by your department/unit head on
Thursday
Good luck!
Monday, June 16, 2008
Course Outline
AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION
AND COMMUNICATION (AgExt 51)
Estrella E. Taco - Borja
Development Communication Department
Xavier University College of Agriculture
April 2006
Course Description:
This course is designed for all plain BS Agriculture students as well as those enrolled in the BS Food Technology and BS Agricultural Engineering departments.
Entry Competency:
Since this course is offered in the third year or fourth year curricula of the various departments, it is expected that the students who would enroll in this course have had basic knowledge on basic agriculture concepts and certain agriculture technology. Their basic knowledge would be used as points of entry and as specific examples as regards the application of various extension and communication methods and techniques.
General Objectives:
A. Cognitive
• Discuss the principles and practices of agricultural extension and communication and their relevance to sustainable agriculture and development
• Identify various extension and communication methods and approaches
B Affective
• Appreciate the nuances in handling and communicating with various audiences
• Show concern to issues related to agriculture and the development of the farming workforce/sector
Psychomotor
• Demonstrate selected extension methods through classroom or field activities
References:
Adhikarya, Romy. 1994. Strategic Extension Campaign: A Participatory-Oriented Method of Agricultural
Extension. FAO of the UN, Rome
Battad, Teodora, et. al. 2003. Agricultural Extension. Grandwater Publications, Makati City, Phils.
Cernea, Michael, et. al. (eds.). 1983. Agricultural Extension by Training and Visit: The Asian Experience. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, World Bank, Washington
Chambers, Robert. 1983. Rural Development: Putting the Last First. Butler and Tanner, Ltd., London.
Ettington, Julius. 1989. The Winning Trainer (2nd ed.) Gull Publishing House, Texas
Kwiatskowsky, Lynn. 1999. Struggling with Development: The Politics of Hunger, Ateneo de Manila Press, Q.C.
Mosher, A.T. 1978. An Introduction to Agricultural Extension. Singapore University Press for Agric. Dev’t Council
Ongkoko, Ila and Alexander Flor. 2003. Introduction to Development Communication. SEAMEO SEARCA and the UP
Open University, College, Los Baños, Laguna
Swanson, Burton, et.a. (eds.). 1997. Improving Agricultural Extension: A Reference Manual. FAO of the UN, Rome
Van den Ban, A.W. and H.S. Hawkins. 1996. Agricultural Extension (2nd ed). Blackwell Science Lts., Great Britain
COURSE OUTLINE:
UNIT 1 : THE CONTEXT OF EXTENSION
Specific Objectives: At the end of the unit, the students are able
1. To contextualize discussions on agricultural extension through an analysis of local, national and agricultural situation;
2. To present basic development theories and approaches;
3. To explain basic concepts in agriculture and agricultural development;
4. To trace the development of agriculture over the years, with focus on the Philippines; and,
5. To identify basic agricultural laws
Coverage:
A Phil. Population and Agricultural Production
B Development Theories, Approaches
C Agriculture Modernization and Development
D Sustainable Agriculture and Development
E Agricultural Laws; DA EOs/Memos
UNIT 2 : AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION: AN INTERVENTION
FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Specific Objectives: At the end of the unit, the students are able
1. To trace the history of agricultural extension; and,
2. To explain the basic concepts of extension: definition, philosophy, goals, objectives and types of extension.
Coverage:
A Historical Antecedents of Agricultural Extension
a.1 Extension in Europe and in the USA
a.2 Extension in the Philippine Setting
B Extension Defined
b.1 Philosophy
1 educational process
2 democratic process
3 indigenous knowledge
4 continuous process
b.2 Goals and Objectives
1 intermediation/mediation
2 teach people
3 research & mobilization
4 local leadership identification
5 establishment of structure/institutions
b.3 Types of Extension
1. Informative extension
2. Emancipatory extension
3 Formative extension
4 Persuasive extension
b.4 Modern and Future of Agricultural Extension
b.5 Formal Extension and Extension Education
UNIT 3 : PRACTICE OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION
Specific Objectives: At the end of the unit, the students are able
1. To identify the roles and functions of the extension worker;
2. To enumerate the principles and approaches of extension;
3. To identify the various extension teaching methods, techniques and approaches;
4. To appreciate the indispensable role of communication in extension;
5. To explain the process of diffusion and adoption, teaching adults;
6. To illustrate the cycle of a development program; and,
7. To discuss and reflect on the extension experiences of the country.
Coverage:
A Present and future Roles and Functions of Extension Worker
B Principles
b1 Communication and education
b2 Accountability to client
b3 Works with rural people
b4 Two-way process linkage
b5 Cooperates with other agencies
b6 Different target groups
b7 Developing rural leadership
C Changes and Challenges in Extension
Changes:
c1 client-orientation
c2 electronic information
c3 participation
c4 unified extension service
Challenges:
c1 status of extension
c2 pre-service education
c3 extension policy
c4 extension after decentralization
c5 impact assessment
c6 globalization
c7 linkages
c8 techno transfer focus
c9 info techno in extension
c10 participation and pluralism
D The Extension Delivery System
e1 research
e2 change
e3 client
E Extension Approach
UNIT 4 : COMMUNICATION IN EXTENSION
Specific Objectives: At the end of the session, the students are able
1. To explain the basic concepts in communication;
2. To appreciate the indispensable role of communication in extension;
3. To explain the process of diffusion and adoption; and,
4. To distinguish adult learning from conventional classroom/academic learning.
Coverage:
A Basic Concepts
a1 Communication Process
a2 Forms of Communication
a3 Barriers of Communication
B Audio-Visual Aids in Extension
C Teaching Methods and Classification
D Ways of Reaching Extension Audience
C Adult Learning and Adult Teaching
a. Principles of Adult teaching and learning
b. Characteristics of adults
c. Knowledge and learning
d. Teaching-Learning models
MID-TERM EXAMINATION
UNIT 5 : DIFFUSION OF INNOVATION
Specific Objectives: At the end of the session, the students are able
1. To explain the basic concepts of innovation and how to diffuse it
2. To identify the appropriate extension and communication techniques according to given types of adopters and phases of adoption
3. To appreciate the significance of the various extension and communication tools in influencing target groups and individuals to adopt a certain innovation
Coverage:
A Basic Concepts
B Stages in the Adoption-Rejection Process
a. Awareness
b. Interest
c. Evaluation
d. Trial
e. Adoption-Rejection
B Adopter categories
a. Innovators
b. Early adopters
c. Early majority
d. Late majority
e. Laggards
C Problems and issues in adoption
a. Attributes of technology
a.1 Relative advantage
a.2 Complexity
a.3 Compatibility
a.4 Trialability
a.5 Observability
b. Technology development process
c. Technology dissemination
D Models of Technology Transfer
d1 top-down
d2 feedback technology
transfer
d3 modified FTT
d4 farmer-back-to-farmer
d5 farmer first
d6 beyond the farmer first
break for:
PREPARATIONS FOR AND ACTUAL DEMONSTRATION DAY
UNIT 5 : PROGRAM PLANNING, MONITORING & EVALUATION
Specific Objectives: At the end of the session, the students are able
1. To illustrate the cycle of a development program; and,
2. To appreciate the value of program planning, monitoring, and evaluation
Coverage:
A Definition E Typology of Participation
B Features of Sound Planning F Participatory Methods
C Planning Process
D M&E in Extension
UNIT 6 : COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION
Specific Objectives: At the end of the session, the students are able
1. Describe the concept and process of community organization;
2. Appreciate the contribution of CO as a tool in Agri Extension and Development
A. Definition
B. Stages and Process
C. Principles
D. Practical Tips
FINAL EXAMINATION
LEARNING METHODOLOGIES:
During the semester, students shall be exposed to various learning methodologies, such as:
1. lecture-discussion
2. e-based interaction through the blog
3. on-site lectures (possibly in cooperation with the Department of Agriculture and NGOs)
4. field demonstration (Demo Day during Manresa Days)
5. library work and web-based materials
6. field/office interviews
GRADING SYSTEM/REQUIREMENTS:
1. Term examinations - Mid-term and final examinations (100 points each) = 200 points
2. Quizzes – announced or unannounced (total of 50 points) = 50
4. Participation in demonstration day (from preparation to dry run to final presentation) =200
5. Assignments – 5 assignments with a total of 50 points = 50
Total =500 points
Computation shall be based on the total points earned by a student (maximum of 500 points), no percent conversion needed, with a 60% passing score, students should be able to compute the letter grade equivalent.
References:
Adhikarya, Romy. 1994. Strategic Extension Campaign: A Participatory-Oriented Method of
Agricultural Extension. FAO of the UN, Rome
Battad, Teodora, et. al. 2003. Agricultural Extension. Grandwater Publications, Makati City,
Phils.
Cernea, Michael, et. al. (eds.). 1983. Agricultural Extension by Training and Visit: The Asian Experience. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, World Bank,
Washington
Chambers, Robert. 1983. Rural Development: Putting the Last First. Butler and Tanner, Ltd.,
London.
Ettington, Julius. 1989. The Winning Trainer (2nd ed.) Gull Publishing House, Texas
Kwiatskowsky, Lynn. 1999. Struggling with Development: The Politics of Hunger, Ateneo de
Manila Press, Q.C.
Mosher, A.T. 1978. An Introduction to Agricultural Extension. Singapore University Press for
Agric. Dev’t Council
Ongkoko, Ila and Alexander Flor. 2003. Introduction to Development Communication.
SEAMEO SEARCA and the UP Open University, College, Los Baños, Laguna
Swanson, Burton, et.a. (eds.). 1997. Improving Agricultural Extension: A Reference Manual.
FAO of the UN, Rome
Van den Ban, A.W. and H.S. Hawkins. 1996. Agricultural Extension (2nd ed). Blackwell
Science Lts., Great Britain
and web-based materials – www.neda.gov.ph; www.da.gov.ph; others to be announced
CLASSROOM POLICIES
1. The demonstration day participation is a must. No student passes the course without having participated in such
major activity.
2. Each students must have a notebook – for note-taking and for journals.
3. Students must come to class on time.
4. No assignments are accepted after the agreed deadline; it’s either on time or nothing.
5. Students are encouraged to participate in class discussion; they must use the medium of
instruction which is English. There will be sessions where the Vernacular shall be used
as an application for extension in the real work.
6. Notes may be posted on the instructor’s blog site: trelborja.blogspot.com; students are
encouraged to visit the site and post comments as necessary
CLASS SCHEDULE
Room SC II: 7:05 – 8:20 TTh
CONSULTATION HOURS
1. office at A 202; Consultation Hours:
MWF: 5:00 – 6:00; TTh: 5:00 – 7:00; Sat: 9:00 – 10:00
Prepared by: Approved By:
ESTRELLA E . TACO – BORJA MA THERESA M RIVERA
Instructor Department Chair
Sem 1, SY 08-08
AND COMMUNICATION (AgExt 51)
Estrella E. Taco - Borja
Development Communication Department
Xavier University College of Agriculture
April 2006
Course Description:
This course is designed for all plain BS Agriculture students as well as those enrolled in the BS Food Technology and BS Agricultural Engineering departments.
Entry Competency:
Since this course is offered in the third year or fourth year curricula of the various departments, it is expected that the students who would enroll in this course have had basic knowledge on basic agriculture concepts and certain agriculture technology. Their basic knowledge would be used as points of entry and as specific examples as regards the application of various extension and communication methods and techniques.
General Objectives:
A. Cognitive
• Discuss the principles and practices of agricultural extension and communication and their relevance to sustainable agriculture and development
• Identify various extension and communication methods and approaches
B Affective
• Appreciate the nuances in handling and communicating with various audiences
• Show concern to issues related to agriculture and the development of the farming workforce/sector
Psychomotor
• Demonstrate selected extension methods through classroom or field activities
References:
Adhikarya, Romy. 1994. Strategic Extension Campaign: A Participatory-Oriented Method of Agricultural
Extension. FAO of the UN, Rome
Battad, Teodora, et. al. 2003. Agricultural Extension. Grandwater Publications, Makati City, Phils.
Cernea, Michael, et. al. (eds.). 1983. Agricultural Extension by Training and Visit: The Asian Experience. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, World Bank, Washington
Chambers, Robert. 1983. Rural Development: Putting the Last First. Butler and Tanner, Ltd., London.
Ettington, Julius. 1989. The Winning Trainer (2nd ed.) Gull Publishing House, Texas
Kwiatskowsky, Lynn. 1999. Struggling with Development: The Politics of Hunger, Ateneo de Manila Press, Q.C.
Mosher, A.T. 1978. An Introduction to Agricultural Extension. Singapore University Press for Agric. Dev’t Council
Ongkoko, Ila and Alexander Flor. 2003. Introduction to Development Communication. SEAMEO SEARCA and the UP
Open University, College, Los Baños, Laguna
Swanson, Burton, et.a. (eds.). 1997. Improving Agricultural Extension: A Reference Manual. FAO of the UN, Rome
Van den Ban, A.W. and H.S. Hawkins. 1996. Agricultural Extension (2nd ed). Blackwell Science Lts., Great Britain
COURSE OUTLINE:
UNIT 1 : THE CONTEXT OF EXTENSION
Specific Objectives: At the end of the unit, the students are able
1. To contextualize discussions on agricultural extension through an analysis of local, national and agricultural situation;
2. To present basic development theories and approaches;
3. To explain basic concepts in agriculture and agricultural development;
4. To trace the development of agriculture over the years, with focus on the Philippines; and,
5. To identify basic agricultural laws
Coverage:
A Phil. Population and Agricultural Production
B Development Theories, Approaches
C Agriculture Modernization and Development
D Sustainable Agriculture and Development
E Agricultural Laws; DA EOs/Memos
UNIT 2 : AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION: AN INTERVENTION
FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Specific Objectives: At the end of the unit, the students are able
1. To trace the history of agricultural extension; and,
2. To explain the basic concepts of extension: definition, philosophy, goals, objectives and types of extension.
Coverage:
A Historical Antecedents of Agricultural Extension
a.1 Extension in Europe and in the USA
a.2 Extension in the Philippine Setting
B Extension Defined
b.1 Philosophy
1 educational process
2 democratic process
3 indigenous knowledge
4 continuous process
b.2 Goals and Objectives
1 intermediation/mediation
2 teach people
3 research & mobilization
4 local leadership identification
5 establishment of structure/institutions
b.3 Types of Extension
1. Informative extension
2. Emancipatory extension
3 Formative extension
4 Persuasive extension
b.4 Modern and Future of Agricultural Extension
b.5 Formal Extension and Extension Education
UNIT 3 : PRACTICE OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION
Specific Objectives: At the end of the unit, the students are able
1. To identify the roles and functions of the extension worker;
2. To enumerate the principles and approaches of extension;
3. To identify the various extension teaching methods, techniques and approaches;
4. To appreciate the indispensable role of communication in extension;
5. To explain the process of diffusion and adoption, teaching adults;
6. To illustrate the cycle of a development program; and,
7. To discuss and reflect on the extension experiences of the country.
Coverage:
A Present and future Roles and Functions of Extension Worker
B Principles
b1 Communication and education
b2 Accountability to client
b3 Works with rural people
b4 Two-way process linkage
b5 Cooperates with other agencies
b6 Different target groups
b7 Developing rural leadership
C Changes and Challenges in Extension
Changes:
c1 client-orientation
c2 electronic information
c3 participation
c4 unified extension service
Challenges:
c1 status of extension
c2 pre-service education
c3 extension policy
c4 extension after decentralization
c5 impact assessment
c6 globalization
c7 linkages
c8 techno transfer focus
c9 info techno in extension
c10 participation and pluralism
D The Extension Delivery System
e1 research
e2 change
e3 client
E Extension Approach
UNIT 4 : COMMUNICATION IN EXTENSION
Specific Objectives: At the end of the session, the students are able
1. To explain the basic concepts in communication;
2. To appreciate the indispensable role of communication in extension;
3. To explain the process of diffusion and adoption; and,
4. To distinguish adult learning from conventional classroom/academic learning.
Coverage:
A Basic Concepts
a1 Communication Process
a2 Forms of Communication
a3 Barriers of Communication
B Audio-Visual Aids in Extension
C Teaching Methods and Classification
D Ways of Reaching Extension Audience
C Adult Learning and Adult Teaching
a. Principles of Adult teaching and learning
b. Characteristics of adults
c. Knowledge and learning
d. Teaching-Learning models
MID-TERM EXAMINATION
UNIT 5 : DIFFUSION OF INNOVATION
Specific Objectives: At the end of the session, the students are able
1. To explain the basic concepts of innovation and how to diffuse it
2. To identify the appropriate extension and communication techniques according to given types of adopters and phases of adoption
3. To appreciate the significance of the various extension and communication tools in influencing target groups and individuals to adopt a certain innovation
Coverage:
A Basic Concepts
B Stages in the Adoption-Rejection Process
a. Awareness
b. Interest
c. Evaluation
d. Trial
e. Adoption-Rejection
B Adopter categories
a. Innovators
b. Early adopters
c. Early majority
d. Late majority
e. Laggards
C Problems and issues in adoption
a. Attributes of technology
a.1 Relative advantage
a.2 Complexity
a.3 Compatibility
a.4 Trialability
a.5 Observability
b. Technology development process
c. Technology dissemination
D Models of Technology Transfer
d1 top-down
d2 feedback technology
transfer
d3 modified FTT
d4 farmer-back-to-farmer
d5 farmer first
d6 beyond the farmer first
break for:
PREPARATIONS FOR AND ACTUAL DEMONSTRATION DAY
UNIT 5 : PROGRAM PLANNING, MONITORING & EVALUATION
Specific Objectives: At the end of the session, the students are able
1. To illustrate the cycle of a development program; and,
2. To appreciate the value of program planning, monitoring, and evaluation
Coverage:
A Definition E Typology of Participation
B Features of Sound Planning F Participatory Methods
C Planning Process
D M&E in Extension
UNIT 6 : COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION
Specific Objectives: At the end of the session, the students are able
1. Describe the concept and process of community organization;
2. Appreciate the contribution of CO as a tool in Agri Extension and Development
A. Definition
B. Stages and Process
C. Principles
D. Practical Tips
FINAL EXAMINATION
LEARNING METHODOLOGIES:
During the semester, students shall be exposed to various learning methodologies, such as:
1. lecture-discussion
2. e-based interaction through the blog
3. on-site lectures (possibly in cooperation with the Department of Agriculture and NGOs)
4. field demonstration (Demo Day during Manresa Days)
5. library work and web-based materials
6. field/office interviews
GRADING SYSTEM/REQUIREMENTS:
1. Term examinations - Mid-term and final examinations (100 points each) = 200 points
2. Quizzes – announced or unannounced (total of 50 points) = 50
4. Participation in demonstration day (from preparation to dry run to final presentation) =200
5. Assignments – 5 assignments with a total of 50 points = 50
Total =500 points
Computation shall be based on the total points earned by a student (maximum of 500 points), no percent conversion needed, with a 60% passing score, students should be able to compute the letter grade equivalent.
References:
Adhikarya, Romy. 1994. Strategic Extension Campaign: A Participatory-Oriented Method of
Agricultural Extension. FAO of the UN, Rome
Battad, Teodora, et. al. 2003. Agricultural Extension. Grandwater Publications, Makati City,
Phils.
Cernea, Michael, et. al. (eds.). 1983. Agricultural Extension by Training and Visit: The Asian Experience. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, World Bank,
Washington
Chambers, Robert. 1983. Rural Development: Putting the Last First. Butler and Tanner, Ltd.,
London.
Ettington, Julius. 1989. The Winning Trainer (2nd ed.) Gull Publishing House, Texas
Kwiatskowsky, Lynn. 1999. Struggling with Development: The Politics of Hunger, Ateneo de
Manila Press, Q.C.
Mosher, A.T. 1978. An Introduction to Agricultural Extension. Singapore University Press for
Agric. Dev’t Council
Ongkoko, Ila and Alexander Flor. 2003. Introduction to Development Communication.
SEAMEO SEARCA and the UP Open University, College, Los Baños, Laguna
Swanson, Burton, et.a. (eds.). 1997. Improving Agricultural Extension: A Reference Manual.
FAO of the UN, Rome
Van den Ban, A.W. and H.S. Hawkins. 1996. Agricultural Extension (2nd ed). Blackwell
Science Lts., Great Britain
and web-based materials – www.neda.gov.ph; www.da.gov.ph; others to be announced
CLASSROOM POLICIES
1. The demonstration day participation is a must. No student passes the course without having participated in such
major activity.
2. Each students must have a notebook – for note-taking and for journals.
3. Students must come to class on time.
4. No assignments are accepted after the agreed deadline; it’s either on time or nothing.
5. Students are encouraged to participate in class discussion; they must use the medium of
instruction which is English. There will be sessions where the Vernacular shall be used
as an application for extension in the real work.
6. Notes may be posted on the instructor’s blog site: trelborja.blogspot.com; students are
encouraged to visit the site and post comments as necessary
CLASS SCHEDULE
Room SC II: 7:05 – 8:20 TTh
CONSULTATION HOURS
1. office at A 202; Consultation Hours:
MWF: 5:00 – 6:00; TTh: 5:00 – 7:00; Sat: 9:00 – 10:00
Prepared by: Approved By:
ESTRELLA E . TACO – BORJA MA THERESA M RIVERA
Instructor Department Chair
Sem 1, SY 08-08
Ag Extension SY 08-09, COURSE OUTLINE
Dear students,
Welcome to Agricultural Extension and Communication class! The course outline that I have included here will give you the detailed description as well as the specific topics that we will take up during the whole semester.
I wish you good luck and please do your role as a responsible student. I welcome comments and suggestions. I encourage you to speak up and express your thoughts and feelings on the course, on classroom policies and management, learning techniques/style, etc.
Cheers,
Trel b
Welcome to Agricultural Extension and Communication class! The course outline that I have included here will give you the detailed description as well as the specific topics that we will take up during the whole semester.
I wish you good luck and please do your role as a responsible student. I welcome comments and suggestions. I encourage you to speak up and express your thoughts and feelings on the course, on classroom policies and management, learning techniques/style, etc.
Cheers,
Trel b
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