Units 3&4

Hi guys,
I'm very sorry for not being able to hold our class yesterday. I heard that some were frustrated (not because you missed seeing me but for the reason that you came to XU just for the agext class - mea culpa!)while there were also others who were very happy with my absence, ha, ha. Anyway, I've attached the next two units to makeup for the missed session.
By the way, I expect your draft brochure tomorrow. Please start prearing your materials now. The techno demo is already soon. Please be disturbed and prepare for
the big day!!!
I will see you in our new room - 2nd floor agriculture building (the room at the end)
REgards
Trel b

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UNIT 3
THE PRACTICE OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION


ROLES AND FUNCTIONS OF THE EXTENSION WORKER
1. Enabler – provides farmers with resources, authority, opportunities to be able to do something; capacitates people
2. Educator – facilitates learning for people to deal with their needs
3. Mediator – works with both sides/involved parties to try to help the parties involved in conflict or misunderstanding reach an agreement
4. Farmer aid – or technician roles wherein the extension agent provides technical expertise for people’s technical problems
5. Facilitator – in the dialect, this means “tigpahapsay” o ‘tigpasayon’; mobilizes people into organized action for a purpose


SOME PRINCIPLES OF EXTENSION
[Principle is defined as a basic assumption; standard of moral or ethical decision-making (Encarta Encyclopedia, 2004)]

1. Communication and Education
- Extension agent’s role: communication and education; . It is an informal educational process, which aims through making wise use of natural resources for the benefit of the individual, the family, the community and the nation.
- Communication: pass on useful information and technology to people who need them
- Education: help rural people acquire the knowledge, skills and attitude that will help them effectively utilize the information or technology
2. Works with Rural People
- For impact and sustainability, work with the not for the people
- People must participate and make decisions that will benefit them; extension agents must assist them by providing all the information needed and possible alternative solutions to clientele problems

3. Accountability to the clientele
- Extension agent must justify to the organization whatever action he/she takes and be accountable and responsible to the clientele on whatever advice or information given to them.
- The clientele is the one to pass judgment on the success or failure of the extension
4. Two-way Process Linkage
- Disseminate information and technology to and receive feedback from clientele so that their needs can be better fulfilled
- Learn from the clientele the wealth of their experiences
5. Cooperates with other agencies
- Extension is only one aspect of many economic, social, cultural and political activities that hope to produce for the betterment of the rural masses
- Extension should therefore cooperate and collaborate with both GOs and NGOs to accomplish the above
- Extension cant be effective on its own as its activities must be interdependent on other related activities
6. Different Target Groups
- Extension clientele is made up of various target groups with different needs, social status, cultural and economic background
- Extension therefore cannot offer a package of technology for all its clientele due to this heterogeneity
- There must therefore be targeting extension, meaning different programs and technology packages for different target groups.
7. Economic necessity
– Extension serves the economic objectives of the nation through the productive use of the
country’s natural resources.

(From Battad’s: Principles of Extension include the following:)
1. cultural difference (same as no. 6 above)
2. cultural change (same as no 6. above)
3. interests and needs (same as no. 6 above)
4. grassroots approach (same as no. 2 above)
5. cooperation (same as no. 5)
6. participation (same as no. 2)
7. use of extension teaching methods (same as no. 1)
8. leadership (same as no. 3)
9. voluntary education (same as no. 1)
10. satisfaction
11. trained specialists
12. whole family approach

The following principles may also be considered:
1. Extension is not a form of charity and the extension worker must never be guilty of ‘giving something for nothing’
2. Extension work must never be forced on people for them themselves. Must learn to feel the need and ask for help in reaching a solution for their problems, or better still, for the people to solve their problems
3. People must take part in every stage of extension work
4. Extension worker must be content with steady progress and avoid attempting to do “to much to fast”
5. progress extension largely depends on training and effectiveness of local leaders


MAJOR CHANGES IN EXTENSION TODAY

Over the years, extension has become more participatory. This means that there is a growing recognition of the importance of the involvement of the local people as active participants in the entire process of research and extension.

EXTENSION MODELS

Transfer of Techno IPM, FFS Mini-enterprise dev Natural resource mgt
================== ======== =================== ====================
Practice Innovations Managing farm Organize for Collective action
as ecosystems marketing

Learning Adoption Complex learning Becoming an Social learning
process entrepreneur

Facilitation Transfer Farmer Field Sch Consultancy Mediation

Institnl Linear Configurn Informal Network Universities Civil society
support Research decentraliz'n NGOs Extension collaboration
Extension

Policy Investment in Removal of Investment Environmental
Research subsidies, policy
and Extension training


Over the years, extension has become more participatory. This means that there is a growing recognition of the importance of the involvement of the local people as active participants in the entire process of research and extension.

GLOBAL TRENDS (Qamar, FAO)

1. client-orientation
2. application of electronic information technology
3. participatory extension
-participatory farmer group
-client-oriented
-gender-sensitive
-research-extension-farmer linkages
-development tools (PRA, Knowledge/Attitude/Practice survey)
-empowerment
4. unified extension service

THE EXTENSION DELIVERY SYSTEM:
AN ESSENTIAL INGREDIENT FOR CHANGE

The Extension Delivery System
- - the organized mechanism to bring the required knowledge, skills, and when necessary, material resources that farmer and his or her family need in their quest for an improved quality of life.

Agricultural Knowledge Information System (AKIS):

An Agricultural Information System – The whole process of generating information, transforming transferring and consolidating the same and finally fed back to ensure utilization of knowledge by agricultural producers

An Agricultural Knowledge System - A system of beliefs, cognitions, models, theories, concepts in which the experience of a person on agricultural production is accumulated.

Components of an Extension Delivery System
• Research System
• Change System
• Client System

The Research System
-------------------
- composed of researchers and scientists from international and national research centers and from research institutions such as universities and research stations.
- Main function of this system is to generate technological innovations that will usher in the needed changes in line with a country’s development efforts.

The Change System
-----------------
- assumes the task of disseminating information and other goods and services designed to bring about changes in client behavior. The following factors affect the functions of the change system:
 Doctrine – an expression of what the organization stands for, what it is striving to achieve, and what approaches or methods it intends to use to attain these objectives. (Arndt and Ruttan, 1977)
 Organizational Structure – the organizational structure sets the formal framework for the ways in which tasks are carried out ( Kast and Rosenzweig, 1977). Corollary to structure are the resources the organization in line with its designated functions. It is what the organization performs for and on behalf of its clientele (Axinn and Thorat, 1972).
 The Change Agent – success in producing the desired changes in clients depends to a great extent on the extension worker, since he deals directly with clients.

The Client System
------------------
-efforts are enhanced by an accurate and thorough assessment of the needs and resources, both material and human, of the rural social systems served; as well as a working knowledge of the principles of effective communication and adult learning.

An extension delivery system is essentially a mechanism for technological innovations requires coordination and cooperation among all components of the system.


MODELS OF TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER:

1. Top-down Technology Transfer Model
-one-way process
-lacks farmer involvement
-applicable in a relatively uniform and predictable environment
-works well in activities focused on single commodity
-clients/receivers’ roles are fixed; little flexibility for the human element
2. Feedback Technology Transfer (FTT) Model
–feedback remains exclusively with the extension service
3. Modified FTT Model
–scientist is isolated from farmer; depends on raw/incomplete information
available
-fixed roles of receiver
4. Farmer-Back-To-Farmer Model
–research begins and ends with farmers
–extensionist is active participant (in community diagnosis, designing, etc.)
-farmer is involved in all stages of the communication process – basically
dynamic model
5. Farmer First Model – aimed at generating choices to enable farmers to
experiment, adapt and innovate; considers the primacy of farmers agenda &
knowledge; provides approaches for mainstreaming farmers in research; and a
new view on the “outsiders” roles.
6. Beyond the “Farmer First”? – Answering to the weaknesses of the farmer first model, perspective is shifting to “beyond the farmers first” by providing analytical depth and presenting more radical programs that incorporate a socio-politically differentiated view of development where factors such as age, gender, ethnicity class and religion are related.


UNIT 4
COMMUNICATION IN EXTENSION



COMMUNICATION

-Comes from the Latin word “communis” which means “to make common.”
-Process of sharing, relationship of participants in the process (Kincaid and Schramm)

Various Definitions of Communication

Aristotle – all available means of persuasion
Laswell – describes it as who says what in which channel, to whom and with what effect (SMCRE).
Berlo – a process by which a source sends message to some channels to a receiver to effect behavior (SMCREF model; began with SMCR only, later +E then finally +F – the most cited model)).
Schramm – the sharing of meaning between two individuals who have similar experiences and similar meaning.

ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION PROCESS:

Source – initiator of the communication activity (person or group of persons or any of the media).
Receiver – the person to whom the message is directed.
Message – the physical product of the source transmitted to the receiver; set of symbols.
Channel – medium utilized to convey a message; effective links.
Effect – the result; response, reactions of the impact of the message to the receiver regardless of whether or not the message belongs to the source.
Feedback – response of the receiver that is communicated to the source.




FACTORS AFFECTING THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS:

SOURCE-RECEIVER FACTORS:
1. Communication skills – there are five verbal communication skills:
For encoding – writing and speaking
For decoding – listening
For both – thought or reason
2. Attitudes – bias or predisposition towards something or someone.
3. Knowledge level – this includes knowledge level about the subject matter, ones own attitudes, characteristics and source-receiver, ways in which the source-receiver can treat messages and communication channels from which the source-receiver can choose.
4. Social system – refers to the group of which a person belongs, his or her perceptions of his or her place in the world, position in own social class, rank and similar aspects, which affect communication behavior.
5. Cultural system – refers to the person’s beliefs, values, ways of making things and ways of behaving.

Other Concepts Concerning Source:

1. Credibility
• Set of perceptions about sources held by receivers
• Credibility factors: competence or expertise, safety or trustworthiness and dynamism plus smooth interpersonal relationship
2. Status Differential
• Each occupies a number of role positions
• Each role demands a particular behavior
• Each role has a status that goes with it
3. Homophily
• Similarity of source to receiver (attributes such as beliefs, values, education, etc.)
• It determines level of acceptance of message by receiver
• Also affects attitude of source to receiver and vise-versa
4. Heterophily
• Degree to which source is different from receiver affecting source-receiver attitudes and acceptance of message
5. Opinion Leader
• Anyone approached by others for advice
• Perceived by followers as credible, influential and authoritative
6. Charisma
• Possession of certain characteristics (cannot be easily explained/defined)

Other Concepts Concerning Receiver:

1. Obstinate Audience
• People select from messages
• What they remember depends on the use they expect to have
2. Psychological Orientation
• Psychological factors salient to receiver’s action towards a message:
a. Processes of selective attention, perception and retention
b. Information processing capacity
c. Perception as influenced by past experiences, needs and motivations, mental set, interests
3. Social-Psychological Orientation
• Receiver’s response to a message is influenced by open-mindedness, self-esteem, beliefs and values, achievement motivation and risk orientation
4. Sociological Orientation
a. Sociological factors that influence receiver’s persuasibility:
b. Group membership
c. Roles and functions in membership groups
d. Reference groups
e. Norms and rules of membership groups
f. Customs and traditions

MESSAGE FACTORS

Message – the actual product of the source-encoder and consists of symbols and stimuli which have meanings for people, and which can elicit particular responses from them.

Components:

The components of a message are code, content and treatment. Code is a group of symbols or a set of rules for combining the symbols, while content is the material in the message that was selected by the source to express his or her purpose. Meanwhile, the decision which the source makes in selecting and arranging both codes and content in the treatment.

The meaning of a message is not in the elements of a message, it is in the experience of the source-receiver. There are four types of meaning: denotative, connotative, structural and contextual.

Other Concepts Concerning Message:

1. Kinesics – Body communication
Types:
• Emblems (gestures translated into verbal code system)
• Illustrations (body movements that accompany speech)
• Affect display (body motions which indicate state of emotions)
• Regulators (gestures and facial movements which help control flow of communication)
• Adaptory (more personal idiosyncratic movement and individual develops)
2. Entropy
• Tendency of mass to break into parts
• Measure of capacity of system to undergo spontaneous charge
3. Meaning
• Thought, idea or information received and expressed by language
• Inherent in definition of language; end result of language
4. Semantic deferential
• Research scale employed to ascertain meaning people ascribe to certain kinds of social object and relationships
5. Semantics
• Study between words and things described
• Two theoretical approaches: a) meaning – what information/ideas are expressed; b) reference – what is the true meaning of words
6. Proxemics
• How one unconsciously structures space to convey meaning
• Dimensions are:
a. Postural – sex identifiers (posture and sex of source and receiver)
b. Sociofugal – societal orientation (physical directness of communication; specifies relationship of person’s shoulders to another)
c. Kinesthetic factor (closeness of two persons involved in communication and potentials of holding, grasping, touching each other)
d. Touch (amount and type of physical contact between parties)
e. Vision (visual contact between persons)
f. Thermal (amount of body heat of one perceived by the other)
g. Loudness (vocal volume)
h. Smell (detection of odor)
7. Paralanguage
• Non-verbal cues which surround verbal system
• Vocal but non-verbal dimension of speech
• Focus on manner it was said than what was said
8. Territoriality
• Person lays claim on particular space/territory and resets invasion
9. Proxemic Distance
• Four kinds: intimate, personal, social and public
• Indicates relationship between source and receiver
10. Common Field of Experience
• When person enters into communication situation, he/she assumes something in common with the other to begin with (e.g. common language or symbols whose meaning they share)
11. Referent
• Meaning anyone is able to read into signs depends on experience with them and referent
12. Presentation
• Manner of presentation of message (e.g. one-sided vs. two-sided, etc.)


CHANNEL FACTORS

The channel is the medium used to transmit a message. It is the effective link interconnecting the source-receiver codes in a communication structure through which messages flow.

1. Hypodermic Needle
• Audience is atomized mass of disconnected individuals
• Direct and immediate stimulus-response relationship between source and receiver of message
• Receivers are inactive, passive
2. Two-step Flow
• Ideas often flow from mass media to opinion leaders and from them to less active sections of population
• Opinion leader is one who tries to convince others of his or her opinions or is sought out by others for opinions
3. Gatekeeper
• One who controls strategic position of channel
• May or may not transmit information within group and may not be influential
4. Multiple Channels
• Use of many senses as possible
5. Noise
• Fidelity of message depends on quality of noise present during transmission of message

EFFECTS FACTORS

The effect can be immediate or delayed. It is immediate when it occurs as soon as the receiver accepts the message, when it is delayed when the impact of the accepted message is felt after a length of time.

If the effect elicited by the message is not equal to or more than the purpose of communication, then, the communication has not been effective.

Effects can also be either observable or non-observable. Observable effects are those immediately detectable through the senses of an onlooker to the situation. Non-observable or covert effects are those not immediately detectable by the observer.

Communication can change five aspects and these can overlap. These effects are change in attitude, opinion, perception, action and emotion. Changes in opinion, perception and action are observable, while changes in attitude are not, some emotional changes are observable, others are not.

Other Concepts Concerning Effects:

a) Learning
• Process by which some aspects of human behavior is acquired or changed through individual’s encounter with events in the environment
• Responses:
a. Differential – difference in individual’s ability to respond, readiness to respond, motivation to respond
b. Frames of references – principles are reinforcement (helpful in establishing response), active participation (better than passive), meaningful responses
c. Habitual – as rewarded responses increase, probability that response be made increases
-keep short interval between responses and reward for effective building of habit patterns
d. Consequences – individuals tend to generalize responses they made
b) Balance
• Involves two persons, one as focus of analysis; a third element is present which is an impersonal entity (e.g. physical object, idea, event, etc.)
• The structure of focus of analysis representing relations among him or her, the other person and the third entity is either balanced or unbalanced
c) Interaction
a. Definition-physical – when people are communicating, they rely on physical existence of the other for production or reception of messages; interdependent
b. Action-reaction – action of source affects action of receiver and vice-versa
c. Interdependence of expectations – ability to project ourselves into other people’s responsibilities
-process through which we arrive at expectations, anticipations of internal psychological states of persons
d. Interaction – two individuals make interferences about own roles and take role of the other at the same time
-six types: cooperation, competition, conflict, accommodation, loving and trusting
-variables: attractiveness, proximity, reinforcement, similarity, and complementarily
d) Feedback
• Information that comes back to sender
• Must be immediate, honest, clear and informative
e) Cognitive-Dissonance
• Lack of harmony between what one knows and what one does or has done
f) Cybernetics
• Correcting its course when it encounters cross-currents
g) Functionalism
• Consequences that enhance or maintain health or integral organization of referent individual, group or society
h) Homeostasis
• System has the tendency to retain its state or characteristics
i) Sleeper Effect
• Information originally rejected by receiver as coming from “untrustworthy” source will later be accepted as receiver forgets about the source
j) Hawthorne Effect
• The environment, source, message and channel or communication situation may have no effect on individual who is the subject of study
k) Determinants of Effect
• Depends on characteristics of source, message, channel and receiver and the resources available to receiver

FORMS OF COMMUNICATION

1. Intrapersonal - A communication transaction that takes place within individual

2. Interpersonal - Communication between two or more people who are conscious of each other’s presence. The physical proximity allows them to interact on face-to-face basis to generate immediate feedback; direct exchange between individuals who can be designated into roles as source and audience


Types of interpersonal communication:
A. Face-to-Face. This occurs between two persons, or within a group, as long as the communicators are able to see and interact with each other as individuals. Examples of this are teacher-student consultations, group or community meetings, or discussions, and class lectures.

B. Mediated. This occurs when a device such as a telephone or computer is placed in between the source and audience. Examples of this are telephone conversation, e-mail, online chat, and letter writing.


Interpersonal Communication

In this situation, the source and the receiver can:
• see each other
• Talk back and forth
• Interrupt each other
• Make responses that both can readily or immediately receive

Interpersonal channels of communication are those means of transmitting or getting a message from one person to another, which involves a face-to-face exchange. Comparatively, mass media channels are those means of transmitting messages from one person to another involving the use of mass media such as newspapers, radio, television, etc.

3. Mass. Mass communication is a process directed toward relatively large, heterogeneous and audiences who are known. Messages are transmitted publicly to reach most number of audiences simultaneously.

Media and new technology – new term for mass communication

• directed to general public and, therefore, highly impersonal; allows large-scale dissemination of messages to audiences who are dispersed over wide geographical area.
• most common forms of mass media are
• print, i.e., newspapers and magazines
• broadcast, i.e., radio and television
• film
• Apart from these easily recognizable media, other forms are:
• music recordings
• advertising, and other strategies for product marketing and publicity


4. Group and Team communication – transforms collection of individuals into cohesive
group
• Group and organizational communication happens within and between groups, organizations and institutions, also in face-to-face or mediated situations:

• Face-to-Face. Group meetings, discussions, lectures, messages with or without use of microphones
• Mediated. Some forms of media or communications technologies used to disseminate messages. Depending on who are addressed by message, can be internal or external.

• Internal. Communication is limited to the members of the group or the organization. This happens when the members are provided with information through standard memos and organizational newsletters.
• External. Communication is directed to non-members – other groups, organizations or general public. For example, media announcements and press releases.

5. Public communication – public speaking

6. Organizational Communication - Communication that happens in professional settings

7. Intercultural communication - communication among societies of different cultures

8. Transpersonal communication – communicating with the personal being




How Do We Communicate?

We communicate through symbols and non-verbal language. A symbol is any object, mode of conduct, or word, which a person acts as if it were something else. Anything that has a meaning is a symbol. A symbol is used to represent something.

Non-verbal language includes kinesics, physical characteristics, touching behavior, paralanguage, proxemics, artifacts and environment factors.

Kinesics are motions of the body including the face. These may include gait; movement of hands, arms and legs; gestures; facial expressions, etc. these body motions provide extensive cues about a person’s mood, intent and openness to interaction.

Physical characteristics may include body type, height, weight, color of based largely on one’s stereotypes about any of those physical characteristics. In most cultures, physical attractiveness facilitates the building of self-esteem and interpersonal relationships.

Touching is one of the five senses. Touching and being touched are considered essential to healthy psychological growth. Touching is very powerful means of expressing emotion, affection and reassurance. Unfortunately, our culture does not encourage touching behaviors except between intimate individuals. Puerto Ricans perform 180 touches per hour, France – 110 touches per hour, USA – 2 touches per hour and England – 0.

Paralanguage refers to sounds that are not words and vocal qualities such as pitch and rate. It deals with how things are said. It often indicates a speaker’s mood. Our interpretation of messages depends largely on cues of tone, infliction, rhythm, articulation and resonance.

Proxemics is the distance we place in reference to other and how we use and structure space. It provides cues to personal and cultural preferences for interaction and privacy. The human use and perceptions space vary among cultures. We may sit opposite others (indicating hostility), beside them (indicating quality), or at an angle to them (indicating cooperation. Territoriality refers to the tendency of animals and humans to stake out personal territories.

Artifacts are personal objects that influence self-presentation and interaction. These may include jewelry, clothes, glasses, other personal effects, etc. people express much of themselves through the artifacts they select and the ways in which they manipulate them.

The environmental factors which we may or may not be able to control include those elements in the setting that influence our definitions or situations. These may include furniture, decorations, sounds, movements, temperature, weather, etc.

What is communication and what it is not:
-Not all communication has to be human communication
-Not all participants in a communication process have to be presented at the same time
-It can take place over large distances of space and time
-Not all communication takes place in words
-It does not always require two or more participants
-Thinking is a form of communication

Therefore, Communication is a Process, meaning:
-On-going -No beginning, no end
-Ever changing -Interdependent
-Inter-related -Cyclic


BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

1. technical - how accurate can message be transmitted
2. effectiveness – how effective does message affect behavior
3. physical – environmental, channel noise
4. psychological-cultural – semantic factors within source/receiver (emotional blocks,
stereotyping, charisma, etc)
a) channel noise - static, wrong spelling
b) environmental factors/conditions
c) semantic - how precise the meaning is conveyed; different meanings, double meanings

Semantic noise includes:
• Distraction
• Differences in the use of the language code
• Emphasizing the wrong part of the message
• Attitude towards the sender
• Attitude towards the message

5. social -others that arise from communicators’ role and stature
6. others - ethnocentrism, experiences

AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS IN EXTENSION

Visual aids are devices used by extension agents to help to get their message across to rural audience since among the five senses, the most important in learning are sight and hearing; devices which utilize the sense of sight to improve communication

(Forms, representatives or reproduction of concepts or things are termed as Primary Visuals)

Kinds of Visual Aids:
1. Non-projected visuals
• Chalkboards
• Objects
• Pictures (powerful “attention getters” and “explainers” when used with news articles in newspapers and magazines)
• Posters
• Flannel graphs
• Charts (series of diagrams, illustrations, pictures, etc)

Graphs/Charts:
Charts – information supplied in tabular form to show sequences and relationships
Graphs – diagrams or lines representing numerical qualities intended for quick comparisons and contrast of statistical information
Line graphs – important in showing trends and relationships; most accurate of all graphs


2. Projected visuals
• Slides, filmstrips, films, overhead projector transparencies

3. Others
Models – realistic replicates of real things
Specimen – representative of a class or group of objects
Maps – flat representation of some portions of the earth’s surface


VISUAL AIDS
Visual aids are the tools of teaching through the sense of sight. They are supporting materials & they alone cannot generate learning. They should be considered only a tool that helps to do a job in a better way.
Visual aids are of different types. The following are the more commonly used ones in India:
i. Posters
ii. Flannel-graphs
iii. Flash cards
iv. Puppets
v. Slides & film-strips
vi. Models
vii. Bulletin boards
viii. photographs
ix. Black-boards
x. Cultural programmes
Posters. A good poster creates awareness & interest among the people. It inspires & takes people towards action. It consists of 3 main parts. The first usually announces the purpose or the approach, the second sets out conditions, & the third recommends action. A poster should be bold enough to attract attention of the people, & should communicate only one idea at a time. It should have simple letters which are clear & forceful. The size of a poster should not be less than 50*75 cm.

Flannel-graphs. Flannel-graphs serve as a good teaching aid. When a piece of sandpaper is fixed to the back of a picture, a photograph, a letter, etc. They can be made to adhere easily to a piece of thick flannel cloth, fixed on a board. They are used as an aid for group methods like informal talks or lectures.

Flash cards. Flash cards are a set of small compact cards approximately 30 to 45 cm. In size, & are used to bring home an idea, such as the benefits of a smokeless chulha, the cultivation of hybrid maize, compost-making & other practices. Pictures on the theme are drawn on these cards in a logical sequence which are flashed before the audience. Upon seeing them, the villagers are able to follow a story more easily.

Puppets. Puppets are very popular & especially suitable for village situations. Puppet shows can be effectively organised to gather the rural people. For a puppet show, a short story, brief scenes & quick dialogues are necessary. Such shows can teach a lesson about health, literacy, agriculture. Or home-making.

Slides. A slide is a transparent picture or photograph in an individual mount. For viewing the image, the picture is projected through a slide-projector which brings the enlarged image into focus on a screen. Slides are excellent aids of illustrating
talks & showing people concrete activities & aspects of development. They can be effectively used to show different situations & methods of carrying out an activity. They can be arranged in a series for giving an illustrated talk on improved agricultural practices, cultivation of crops, etc.

Film-strips. They are a series of black-and-white or coloured pictures depicting a single idea, & instead of being individually mounted are printed on a single length of strip of 35-mm film. Such strips can be shown to an audience of about a 100 people. The additional advantage in using the film-strips is that the film can be stopped anytime during the show to explain or discuss a difficult or interesting point.

Models. Models create a sense of realisation in a person. Models of new farm equipments, compost pits & sanitation devices & animals are mostly prepared for those people who are not in a position to see them in the actual form. They are used to create interest, promote understanding & influence the people to adopt a certain practice.

Bulletin-boards. A bulletin-board can serve the purpose of making announcements, displaying events of short duration & photographs of local activities. The information should be written in simple language.
Photographs. They are a very simple visual aid. Good photographs show some action & catch the feelings & emotions of the people. They are so arranged that they tell a story. They are displayed on a bulletin-board at a common meeting-place where a large number of people can see them. They should be clear & bold in composition with proper captions.

Black-boards. They provide a writing & drawing surface for chalk. They are usually used in schools, colleges & meeting places. They make possible the use of sketches, drawings, words, symbols of a combination of them to emphasise a point. Black-boards are most useful in group-teaching methods.

Cultural programmes. Local cultural programmes, such as folk-songs & dramas, are used as an effective medium of communicating the message of development programmes. Dramatization of a theme or story creates a lively interest among the audience. Folk-songs & dances related to the subjects of local interest & importance, when acted on the stage, bring them home more forcefully.
For an effective use of extension-teaching methods, it is not enough to know these methods & their techniques. What is more important is the appropriate selection of a method or combination of methods for a particular situation. In fact, when a farmer is exposed to a new idea several times by different methods or a combination of methods, he is likely to accept it more quickly. Farmers learn about new practices through several stages. These stages are known as: (1) the awareness stage- when a person comes to know of a new practice but lacks the complete information; (2) the interest stage- when he becomes interested in a new idea & wants to know more about it; (3) the evaluation stage- when he mentally applies the new idea to his present situation & evaluates it; (4) the trial stage- when he applies the new idea or practice on a small scale in order to determine its utility under his own situation; and (5) adoption stage- when he decides to continue the full use of the practice. Thus, it is the cumulative effect on people through exposure to an idea repeatedly that results in action.